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Measuring Work Well-Being
and Productivity in the Nordic
Countries
A manual
Lars Foldspang, Michael Mark, Kristian Mørk Puggaard,
Otto Melchior Poulsen, UlfJohansson, Guy Ahonen and
SteinarAasnæss
TemaNord 2011:569
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
A manual
Lars Foldspang, Michael Mark, Kristian Mørk Puggaard, Otto Melchior Poulsen, UlfJohansson,
Guy Ahonen and Steinar Aasnæss
TemaNord 2011:569
ISBN 978-92-893-2293-5
© Nordic Council of Ministers, Copenhagen 2011
This publication has been published with financial support by the Nordic Council of Ministers.
But the contentsofthis publication do not necessarily reflect the views, policies or recommen-
dations of the Nordic Council of Ministers.
www.norden.org/pub
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Nordic co-operation seeks to safeguard Nordic and regional interests and principles in the
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Content
Preface........ 7
KE EE nani REIN AMRaTg EMRE9
Introduction... så 11
1. The Theoretical Model ies .15
2. Definitions of Work Well-Bei ng.....uuwseneesessns 17
3. Towardsan Indicator List.
3.1 Company work well-being practice 
3.2 Physical Conditions and Exposures
3.3. Psychosocial Conditions...
3.4 Well-Being.......
Data Availability and Data Quality............
4.1 Company Work Well-Being Practice 
4.2 Indicators Regarding Physical Conditions and Exposures ...esessseresservssssistens
4.3 Indicators Regarding Psychosocial Conditions......s.suusereesseessseversssseersseressssesens
4.4 —Indicators Regarding Well-Being.......usssseeresseersvsreevesssrereessasereessasseresssseeesnnssns
4.5 General Data Quality Assessment
REEreneaSmenmmunsssesnmvnnnnnnnnspnj
 
Sammenfatning.
Appendix A: Data Availability and Data Quality .....eseesseessseesseeseeseeisessssersssesssoss
7.1 Testing Data Availability :
7.2 Indicators Regarding Company Work Well-Being Practice...
7.3 Indicators Regarding Physical Conditions and Exposures....... “i
7.4 Indicators Regarding Psychosocial Conditions.......msssesresseveserrvsversssressersssersses
7.5 Indicators Regarding Well-Being
 
Preface
Globalisation pressures and demographic trends affect the chances of
the Nordics to be prosperous and indirectly threaten the welfare states
as we know them. These pressures and trends underline the twin chal-
lenge to the Nordics of productivity stagnation and a decreasing work
force. A contribution to an answer to both challenges can be an increase
in productivity and new ways to increase the work force.
A good work environment can do both: If less people have to take
sick leave as result of bad work environments, this will contribute to
increasing the work force. Also, for some time, a relationship between
work environment and productivity has been hypothesised. Happy,
healthy workers, in short, are more productive than not-so-happy and
not-so-healthy workers are.
Therefore, the main objective of the Nordic Council of Ministers’ co-
operation in the area of working environment is to promote health and
welfare at work and thus productivity in society.
In this context, the Nordic Council of Ministers has initiated a project
aiming at clarifying the impact on productivity of work environment and
well-being in companies. This report presents an indicator manual for
use in measuring work environment in the Nordic countries. The report
also outlines and defines a common Nordic concept of work well-being.
The purpose of the indicators presented and the common Nordic
concept of work well-being are to serve as important first steps on the
way to a thorough econometric analysis of the relationship between
work environment, well-being, and productivity.
Summary
This report provides an indicator manual for the measurement of work
environment and well-being. It thus completes phase 1 of a project in
three phases on the possible connection between work environment,
well-being, and productivity.
This relationship - between well-being and productivity - has been
investigated before. However, to the knowledge of the authors of this
report, no study has been conducted carrying out thourough economet-
ric analysis across the Nordic countries of the relationship. This indica-
tor manual isa first step on the way to conducting such analysis.
The indicator manual outlines and defines a common Nordic concept
of working environment, occupational health, well-being, workability
and other concepts related to this area. It further identifies indicators for
the measurement of the different aspects of working environment. Final-
ly, the report presents sources of data for each of the indicators from the
four countries Finland, Sweden, Norway, and Denmark.
The data sources are rated according to the availability of data, the
relevance, availability, accuracy, and comparability across the four coun-
tries. The manual shows that although some of the indicators, which
could be helpful in a complete description of work environment and
well-being, cannot be measured in all of the aforementioned countries,
there appears to be firm ground on which to base thorough econometric
analyses of the relation between work environment, well-being, and
productivity.
The project, funded by the Nordic Council of Ministers, was conduct-
ed by a group of experts, consisting of:
e Otto Melchior Poulsen, The National Research Centre for Working
Environment (Denmark)
e Guy Ahonen, Työterveyslaitos/Finnish Institute of Occupational
Health (FIOH), Finland
e Steinar Asnaess, STAMI, Norway
e Ulf Johansson professor at Malardalen University, Sweden
in co-operation with the research based consultancy DAMVAD of Copen-
hagen, Denmark.
Introduction
This paper will try to outline and define a common Nordic concept of
working environment, occupational health, well-being, workability and
other concepts related to this area. Furthermore, the paper will outline a
list of theoretically defined indicators, meant to be measureable when
measuring the different aspects of working environment.
In this paper, we generally use the term work well-being as an um-
brella for the concept covering many different issues including the ele-
ments mentioned above. The terminology is explained more thoroughly
in section three.
The paper explores different aspects of work well-being and outlines
a series of indicators which are supposed to reflect the different aspects
of working environment and make it possible to measure working envi-
ronment.
Background
The Nordic countries face shared challenges to be addressed in order to
preserve growth and prosperity in the coming years. Demographic
trends mean that in the coming decades the work force will decrease
significantly in numbers and at the same time, the number of elderly
people who require nursing will increase. This involves a financial chal-
lenge for public finances. And it means that there is a growing labour
shortage in both the private and public sector.
Concurrently, the Nordic countries face a great challenge with re-
spect to productivity. The Nordic countries share the same problem of
having generated too little increased value per work input, with the risk
of a deterioration in our competitiveness. Since we will face a future
labour shortage, there is a risk of a lower standard of living in the Nordic
countries.
It is therefore both necessary to increase the workforce in the Nordic
countries and to increase productivity and competitiveness.
One way to face these challenges can be through improved work
well-being
Improved health and well-being could have a positive effect on labour
supply through lower absenteeism, reduced marginalization from the
labour market and later retirement.
International studies indicate that there may be increased productivi-
ty through better work well-being. The effects will be expected to occur
in both the private and public sectors. However, there remains robust
statistical evidence of links between work well-being and productivity.
Specifically, there is a lack of knowledge about how well-being at work
affects productivity in different types of businesses (across industries,
size, etc.). Literature reviews reveal that there is very limited evidence
based on economic quantitative analyses examining and documenting
this relationship.
Purpose of This Report
In order to overcome this lack of knowledge, the Nordic Council of Min-
isters has initiated a project with the aim of finding ways to conduct
econometric analyses to determine the relationship between work well-
being and economic performance in companies. The overall purpose is
to try to determine the effects on company performance of company
work well-being efforts.
The project consists of three phases:
e Development ofa theoretical model and identification of relevant
indicators and data sources across the Nordic countries
e A feasibility study regarding the collection and quality assessment of
data from the four countries
e Performing econometric analyses in order to determine the
relationship between company performance of company work well-
being efforts
This report is the final deliverable in the first phase of this project.
The relationship between work well-being and productivity is a com-
plex area. Before it is possible to carry out proper assessments of possi-
ble relationships, it is necessary to establish a solid conceptual frame-
work and acknowledged understanding of how the area can be exam-
ined across the Nordic countries. It is also necessary to identify available
Scandinavian data sources, making it possible to carry out valid and
comparable analyses across the Nordic countries.
Hence, the purpose of this report is three-fold:
e To outline acommon Nordic conceptual framework and definition of
work well-being
e To identify theoretical indicators of the various aspects of work well-
being for micro-econometric analysis of correlations between health,
well-being and productivity
e To assess available Nordic data that can be used to analyze different
aspects of relationships between work well-being in companies and
productivity
12 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
The Nordic manual for measuring work well-being is supposed to be the
basis for further studies in phase two of this project.
Organisation ofthe Project
To achieve this goal this project has been funded by the Nordic Council
of Ministers. The project is being conducted by experts of work well-
being across the Nordic countries.
Participants in the project are:
e Lars Foldspang, Michael Mark, Jesper Sørensen and Kristian Mørk
Puggaard, DAMVAD, Denmark
e Otto Melchior Poulsen, The National Research Centre for Working
Environment (Denmark)
e Guy Ahonen, Työterveyslaitos/Finnish Institute of Occupational
Health (FIOH), Finland
e Steinar Asnaess, STAMI, Norway
e UlfJohansson professor at Målardalen University, Sweden
This paper is based on a series of national contributions from the mem-
bers of the project group from Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden.
Each of the members has forwarded a of review over national literature
and research concerning work well-being. The national papers deal with
three different issues:
e Anational definition of work well-being from each of the four
countries which is based on research and includes all the relevant
elements and excludes all irrelevant elements of the definition
e Anational series of indicators regarding work well-being in each of
the countries. This is a set of indicators in order to be able to analyse
the status of the working environment
e Anational series of indicators from each of the countries regarding
how companies work to improve the work well-being
Furthermore, each member of the project groups has identified and de-
scribed available data sources for measuring the indicators in each of the
countries.
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 13
1. The Theoretical Model
The theoretical model is depicted in the chart below.
The basic hypothesis of the model is that improving the work well-
being of employees will improve productivity because risks, uncertainty,
hostile conditions, injuries, toxic exposures, etc. all remove resources
away from the working tasks into unproductive actions.
According to Becker and Huselid, improving the work well-being of
workers pays off, because it gives a strategic advantage to the company
(Becker & Huselid 1998). The blue boxes are the topics in focus in this
paper.
 
General company
 characteristics   
Physical  
 conditionsand
Company work exposure
Nel ent: (A
Wellbeing is Productivity
se i
Psycho-
social   
conditions
 
 
Chart2.1 Overall modelfor companypractice, work well-being and productivity
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011
The idea behind the theoretical model is to investigate how work well-
being efforts affect productivity. Efforts can be undertaken both at com-
pany and individual level. Thus, the model operates with the company
level as well as the individual level. It is important to note that although
the causality can in theory very well run from company practice and
company work well-being effort (company level) to individual well-
being of the workers, the measurement of company level factors can be
extremely difficult, because these are, to some extent, experienced dif-
ferently by different individuals. For example, to the extent workers are
asked, not all of them will find that a specific company is doing a great
job promoting the work well-being of its employees.
When conducting analyses, the model enables the researchers to ad-
just one or more efforts in one or more of the four boxes in order to in-
vestigate effects on productivity. The adjustments can be done sequen-
tial to isolate and investigate the effects of a single effort. Or the adjust-
 
ments can be done simultaneously to investigate the effects of different
combinations of work well-being efforts.
Finally the model allows for including general company characteristics.
This is done in order to isolate the effects of adjustments in work well-
being effort and thus making sure, that observed changes in productivity
is not an effect of a change in exports, R&D level, the educational level of
the employees or other things usually affecting productivity.
16 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
2. Definitions of Work
Well-Being
The definition of work well-being covers a broad range of objectives and
underlying factors. The differences in the definitions are a consequence
of the constant change in focus of work well-being due to changes in
society, technology and knowledge about work well-being. As such the
definition of work well-being will never be definitive, but will always be
subject to the changes in norms of society, ways of organizing work,
technological landmarks and new knowledge.
Despite these challenges this chapter focuses on the definition of
work well-being. In relation to the definition, the term work well-being
will cover work environment, work well-being, employee well-being and
occupational health. This distinction will be presented when there are
direct references from the contributors of this brief note.
The focus on work well-being is related to an increasing insight into
the importance of work well-being. One aim of focusing on work well-
being is to accomplish healthy workplaces and prevent the worker from
being stressed, ill, hurt or exposed to accidents. A healthy workplace has
several implications both to the individual, the company and the society
as a hole. First, the workplace has huge impact on each individual health
situation and therefore work well-being is central to individual health
and their safety at work. Second, work well-being is a significant issue in
employment policy among others to increase labour supply. Third, work
well-being is important to the overall health policy in terms of decreas-
ing illness among the population, absenteeism from work and improved
living standard. As such, work well-being concerns both the exposure of
risks and a way to increase individual and company resources.
2.1.1 Definitions
Traditionally, work well-being has focused on the physical conditions at
the workplace. Throughout the 70’s there has been a broadening focus
on work well-being to include psychological, chemical and biological
work well-being. The vast literature also depicts this by focusing on a
broader definition of work well-being. This focus has led to steps at gov-
ernmental level to increase awareness on work well-being, e.g. Swedish
Work Environment ACT from 1977 and a task force in Denmark ap-
pointed in 1972 and later, in 1977, legislations pointed specifically at
work well-being.
From the 1980’s and onwards there has been an inclusive focus on
work well-being. This includes not only focus on psychological and
chemical factors but the physical factors too. It also includes relations
and interactions between different individuals and parts of the work
place and the surrounding society. Further, there has been focus on
work well-being as a way of gaining more from the employees. As such
work well-being both concern risks and resources.
In the Nordic countries there are similarities and differences in focus
on work well-being.
In Finland, the definition of work well-being is the concept of promo-
tion and maintaining work ability. This concept defines workplace activi-
ties aimed at maintaining the ability to work, including all measures that
the employer, employees and the cooperative organizations at the
workplace take in a united effort to promote and support the ability to
work and to enhance the functional capacity of all persons active in
working life throughout their careers.
The company is not the only entity in focus. Collaboration between
members of the work community, as well as different work organiza-
tions is also strongly emphasized. As such, the focus of work well-being
does not only include the individual level, but also organizational levels
surrounding the individual both within the company, but also at the
level of the work community.
In Norway, the definition evolves around work environment, work
well-being and occupational health:
e Work environment: The work environment is focusing on the cause-
effect-relationships between exposure at work and increased risk for
diseases. The focus is to reduce the impact of harmful factors at work
and to find work processes to reduce the risk of disease in those who
work in the process
e Work well-being: Sum of the factors at work which the employee
responds to whether physical, chemical, mental or social. It can
distinguish between two sides: One is the prevention of negative
effects, and the other is the exploitation of the potential positive
effects in terms of safety and learning
e Occupational health: The promotion and maintenance of the highest
degree of physical, mental and social well-being of workers in all
occupations; the prevention amongst workers of departures from
health caused by their working conditions; the protection of workers
in their employment from risks resulting from factors adverse to
health; the placing and maintenance of the worker in an occupational
environment adapted to his physiological and psychological
capabilities; and, to summarize, the adaptation of work to man and of
each man to his job. (ILO, WHO)
18 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
In Sweden, the definition of work well-being concerns the conditions at
the work place. A specification of this definition state that factors affect-
ing the employee is in fact work well-being. This means that the dynam-
ics of the relationship between the work place and the employee is a
centre. Further, the definition includes focus on occupational health.
Occupational health is defined as ensuring a higher degree of protection
of workers at work through the implementation of preventive measures
to guard against accidents and occupational diseases and through in-
formation, consultation, balanced participation and training of workers
and their representatives.
Another focus is on the healthy organization. The healthy organiza-
tion is aiming at creating the best work well-being for the employees
and consists of different factors such as organizational culture, occupa-
tional health and security and personal health practices. These factors,
when used properly, adds to the well-being of the individual by giving
them information and support to make positive choices that reduce risks
and enhance their well-being. This implies both the physical, psychologi-
cal and social health in the organization.
In Denmark the definition of work well-being encompasses interac-
tion between relations, influences and conditions, which each person is
performing under. It is also a question of the technical and social devel-
opment at the workplace affecting the individual’s safety in the short run
and the physical and psychological well-being and health in the longer
run. Further, general well-being is defined as balance, e.g. balance be-
tween the resources and the demands put forward. Well-being is pro-
moted by positive expectations to handling everyday challenges and that
the individual has physical and mentally surplus of energy. As such well-
being is creating happiness, satisfaction and security.
Elements Defining Work Well-Being
Originally the main focus was on safety and factors that in the shorter or
longer run could affect illness or accidents at the workplace. It encoun-
tered factors such as smoke noise, trash and muck as well as the risk of
accidents at work. In time this has been expanded to also include im-
pacts that affect health in the longer run. As such it is clear that work
well-being not only consists of directly objective physical factors. Work
well-being consists of physical, psychological and psychosocial factors,
which both Danish, Swedish, Norwegian and Finnish research confirms.
Therefore, work well-being focuses on two elements:
e Physical elements of work well-being
e Psychological and psychosocial elements - the psychological and
psychosocial are combined as they are closely related and very often
interrelated
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 19
Even the basic and most simple definition of work well-being has rapidly
become complex, because identifying work well-being comprise the
following elements:
e Interaction: The physical, psychological and psychosocial factors
interact with each other and as such work well-being becomes
relatively complex
e Short or long term effects: Besides the interaction between the three
elements one has to consider whether the causes have short or long
term effects
e Individual or system effects: It should also be considered if the causes
are affecting the individual or the organization or both. The system
effects also include the work organizations
e Identifying the causes: In order to identify the different causes and
determinants ofwork well-being, it is also important to gain
knowledge about the objective and subjective measures and how
these should be interpreted
One example of how the complexity is affecting research is found in Dan-
ish research. Here the definition of work well-being consists basically of
two different aspects. One aspect is the causes and determinants of work
well-being and another trail focuses on the consequences regarding
health. This approach consists of numerous advantages, but can be very
difficult or even impossible to implement. Therefore, the definition has
been revised and it has been decided to return to the previous more
traditional and unified definition of work well-being as something that is
causing and affecting changes.
It is central in order to understand work well-being that the different
aspects of physical, psychological and social factors are possible to iden-
tify. Therefore it is also of great importance to understand, in depth, how
the different aspects can be identified, e.g. at what level should the dif-
ferent elements of work well-being be measured, how do they interact
with each other, how is the impact on an individual and organizational
level and what are the possible impacts both in short and long term.
Therefore the following will focus on physical, psychological and psy-
chosocial factors and how these are defined and determined based on
Swedish, Norwegian, Finnish and Danish research.
The Physical Work Well-Being
Physical work well-being was the initial focus and is perhaps the easiest
part to measure. The physical work well-being is highly related to cause
and effect. If the worker is less exposed to asbestos, chromium, nickel
and vinyl chloride then the risk of developing various cancers lessens, as
the Norwegian points out. Further, noise level, smoke and chemical risks
are pointed out as elements affecting the physical environment.
20 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
Safety is also an important element of physical work well-being. In
the Danish case, there is focus on accidents at work and muscular and
skeleton influences in relation to safety. In Finland, focus is on the health
and safety of work, working methods and the work environment. In
Norway the new labour life is affecting the health, environment and safe-
ty situation (HES issues) for Norwegian employees. In the Swedish case
safety is mentioned in line with occupational health.
One way of meeting the challenges of bad physical work well-being is to
take precautions related to safety and what is causing bad physical work
well-being. Here, prevention in terms of physical exercise is being stressed
as important in the Finnish and the Danish case (Mortensen et. Al. 2008).
Physical exercise is an important factor because it has documented positive
physical effects and because it increases mental resources.
The determinants of physical factors are traditionally interpreted as
objective factors that in short or long term will affect the health of em-
ployees, e.g. Westlander in Hérte (2009) who adds that the objective
factors are related to the physical work well-being and thereby is easily
measured. The cause will mainly be related to the individual effects.
The physical factors will both have short term and long term effects.
Obviously, an accident will have an immediate effect while the exposure
of damaging radiation will have long term effects. When defining differ-
ent causes and determinants it is clear that short term effects are easier
to locate than long term effects.
The Psychological and the Psychosocial Work Well-Being
Another central element of defining work well-being is the psychological
factors.
In Finland, there is an increasing focus on work related problems
caused by psychological factors. Ahonen and Hussi (2007), state that
increasing the knowledge-intensiveness of working life will modify the
prerequisites of work. Because of increasing computerization and struc-
tural changes, about 70% of the Finnish labour force is working on tasks
that are based on clerical content. On the other hand, tasks that have
been non-technical by nature are also becoming increasingly technical in
nature implying high performance systems. The radical changes in con-
tent and methods of work imply challenges to professional qualifica-
tions. If these qualifications are not met, it can rapidly turn into serious
problems in working life, causing stress and other problems.
In the Swedish case, Westlander (in Hörte, 2009) elaborates upon
and classifies different psychosocial approaches. Based on theories de-
veloped in the 1970’s she suggests that these psychosocial factors and
theories could stand for either ideas about causality between work con-
ditions and the individual, or about consequences in terms of the indi-
viduals feelings, experience or actions, or about the interrelationship
between work conditions and the individual. These three perspectives
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 21
could equally well be used for discussing how other work conditions
affect the employee.
In Denmark, there is a recognition that the pressure from psychologi-
cal stain will increase. In a report from 2010 regarding the future of
work well-being it is stated that both the quantitative and qualitative
demands will increase and as such continue a trend, which has been
identified from year 2000 to year 2005.
The psychological factors cover a broad range of factors that are in-
teracting. It is important that the individual perceptions of the surround-
ing conditions, challenges and opportunities compared to the individual
goals and aspirations (in work as well as private sphere) have immense
results for the psychological reactions (Lazarus 1999).
For instance, stress and work stress are in focus in Norway. Stress is
defined as the result of any emotional, physical, social, economic, or oth-
er factors requiring a response or change. Work stress is the relationship
between stressors on the job and how the worker physically and emo-
tionally reacts. Stress at work can also involve job security, un-
stimulating work, salary problems and other issues. Both the Finnish
and Swedish case focuses on different stressors such as responsibility,
motivation, work schedules, motivation, self-fulfilment, the meaningful-
ness of work, the control of exposure and strain, work life balance. All
are factors affecting well-being and hence potentially productivity.
Another stressor could be over commitment at work, which is to bind
or obligate (oneself, for example) beyond the capacity for realization. Also
job security, defined as the probability that an individual will keep his or
her job; a job with a high level ofjob security is one where the person with
the job would have a small chance of becoming unemployed.
The interaction element of the psychological and the psychosocial fac-
tors is often very present. Actually the effects on work well-being from the
psychological and the psychosocial are caused by interactions between
different factors. These different factors and their interaction are both
affecting the individual, the organization and both at the same time.
Identifying the causes can be a complex matter. The strong element
of interaction of factors between the individual and organizational level
combined with uncertainties make identification of psychological and
psychosocial factors a difficult task and maybe even impossible to
achieve a generic definition.
Towards a Common Definition
One of the objectives of the project is to find a common and pragmatic
definition of work well-being. It is important to stress that the definition
is nota final definition. This is the definition in this project.
22 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
Elements in the Definition:
e The objective and
e subjective
e physical and
e psychosocial well-being of the employees
e individually and social relationships
e the factors in the physical and psychosocial environment in the organization
or in the work community that addresses the physical and psychosocial risks
and resources of the employees
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
The physical well-being of the employee includes the overall health and
safety of the employee including the identifiable workplace, causes of
accidents and illness.
The psychosocial well-being of the employee includes, among others,
a set of job factors related to the interaction between people, their work
and the organization.
The individual factors of work well-being include all personal factors
both physical and psychosocial well-being as well as the fact that the
work well-being is filtered through individual perceptions.
The organizational factors of work well-being include, among others,
the organization of healthy and safe ways of work, interaction with oth-
ers in the group, i.e. colleagues and superiors. The physical and psycho-
social environment in the organization can, by preventive actions, pro-
mote and support the physical and psychosocial well-being of the em-
ployees, among others the balance between work and leisure,
information and influencing attitudes. As a supplement to addressing
risk factors, work places can also treat bad work well-being in terms of
reacting when the problem arises, e.g. by intervention, treatment etc.
The work atmosphere, social support and control over work tasks ex-
perienced by the employee are increasingly important as prerequisites of
work ability and thereby important to work well-being. Therefore, the
development of work communities becomes increasingly important to
companies and employees. The work communities are putting up the
frames, rules and legislations, which help companies and employees to
settle any disputes or expectations between employer and employee.
The ability to determine the cause and effect of the physical and psy-
chosocial factors both short term and long term effects.
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 23
3. Towards an Indicator List
The indicators were selected on basis of the expert inputs. Three groups
of indicators appeared to be the centre of discussion in the expert inputs.
These three groups correspond to the blue boxes in figure 2.1.
e Work or work well-being indicators, corresponding to company
practice
e Workers’ health, corresponding to company work well-being (status
indicators)
e Companies’ improvement efforts, corresponding to company work
well-being improvement efforts
The indicators should cover fact based or “objective” factors as well as
“subjective” or self-reported factors. Also, they must cover work well-
being at the individual as well as the organizational level. Finally, physi-
cal as well as psycho-social work well-being should be covered, as
should short term as well as long term effects.
3.1 Company work well-being practice
The physical and psychosocial well-being of the employee is affected by
the way the company functions in general. This includesalot of different
aspects such as:
e organisation of work
e organisation of working hours
e individual influence
e the demand and work load
e supervisory practises
e culture and social support
These factors influence the work well-being of the employee whether they
are subject to deliberate work well-being actions and effort by the work
place or not. Some of the factors may be adjusted easily as a consequence
of a work well-being action while others can be more difficult to adjust.
Company practices regarding improvement of work environment re-
late to the way companies work specifically to improve the work envi-
ronment. The subject can be divided into different groups. Working en-
vironment improvement practices are generally subject to top manage-
ment decisions or include decisions in which the top management in-
cludes other management levels as well as employee representatives.
Furthermore, the psychological health is to a large degree also a
question of management practices since the management is responsible
for handling the psychosocial health situation at the work place. The
management can decide to develop certain tools or inaugurate specific
practices in order to improve the working environment.
Indicators
 
Indicator
Management system
Control over work tasks and influence
Feed back
Reward systems and acknowledgement
Flexible job descriptions
Demands and expectations
Social support from management
Culture
Problem-solving and collaboration climate
Social support from colleagues
Clarity of roles
Organisation of work
Work scheduling
Working communities / group work
Change/restructuring/downsizing and information levels
Organisation of work environment effort
Evaluation tools, work place analysis etc.
Personnel policy
Work environment programmes and plans
Establishing a WE and/or safety organisation
Company certification in WE effort
Efforts to improve psychological health
General training and competence development
Regular evaluation of training needs and wishes
Efforts to improve physical health
Countering repetitive and hard physical work
Ergonomics
Specific action plans and action concerning noise, chemicals, indoor climate etc.
Preventive actions regarding work accidents
Adopting healthier ways of living
Physical exercise
Health Checks
Rehabilitation courses, Medical treatment, Intoxicant programmes
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
Job control and influence
e Does the company give the employee control over how to perform
work tasks?
A general and important issue across the WE literature is to what extend
the employees have control over the tasks they are to perform them-
selves. Therefore, it is important to evaluate if and how companies aim
at empowering the employees, to which extent they give the autonomy
and predictability in the work effort. Specific company measures in this
26 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
area could be decisions regarding work tasks, colleagues to perform the
work task with, improved communication regarding the tasks, flexibility
regarding how, where and when to perform the tasks etc.
Feedback
e Does the management give regular and fair feedback to employees?
Feedback is an important part of the psychological work environment.
Feedback from managers and management is a way for employees to
learn about and improve their performance as well as a way to get in-
formation about their job situation, future etc. Therefore feedback is in
many cases seen as an important tool to promote work environment for
employees as well as a way to have an open dialogue on how to ensure
that performance is at the expected level. However, it is important to
make sure that feedback is given in the right way in order to make sure
that feedback is given in a constructive manner.
Reward Systems and Acknowledgement
e Does the company reward the employees appropriately in
accordance with their efforts?
Rewarding can be many things. However, across Norway, Sweden and
Finland, given an appropriate and fair award related to the results of the
employee is stated as important. This is related to and can be a specific
way of acknowledgement of results from the management, which is also
an important factor regarding the psychosocial work environment. A
sub-theme within this indicator is whether the company has specific
systems for rewarding.
Demands and Expectations
e Are the demands and expectations towards the employee
reasonable?
Demands and expectations are important factors for work well-being.
The sense of being able to deliver what is expected is closely related to
expectations regarding job security as well as hopes regarding wage and
career potential. Therefore high and unrealistic expectations regarding
effort increase uncertainty for the employee. This includes demands
exceeding the qualifications of the employees as well as demands in
relation to the work load expected to be performed.
Another important theme that can be explored is whether there is a
reasonable and realistic work load compared to the abilities, resources
and skills of the employee. Unrealistic expectations in these matters are to
a high degree correlated to work-related stress, failure and uncertainty.
Psychosocial and organizational factors are important in the devel-
opment of mental disorders. Among the best documented risk factors for
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries = 27
depression (Stansfeld 2006, Bonde 2008) research finds job demands
combined with low control and low social support. However, this is also
related to effort-reward imbalance and poor climate of cooperation
(“team climate”).
Flexible Job Descriptions
e Does the work place use flexible job descriptions?
An aspect closely related to control over work tasks as well as influence
and repetitive work is whether companies have flexible job descriptions
for employees. This enables for job rotation, professional development,
influence on daily tasks etc. (Ahonen 2008).
However, some studies show that functional flexibility is not directly
linked to productivity (van der Meer, PH and Ringsdal, K 2009).
Social Support from Management
e Does the management support the well-being and well-functioning of
the individual employee?
Social support from the management appears to be linked to absence in
the way that lack of support causes absenteeism. This is linked to the
fact that support from management gives a sense of job security as well
as backing up the employees socially ensures that bullying or other neg-
ative behaviour from co-workers is less frequent. Furthermore, social
back-up from the management can take form of helping employees in
tackling difficult situations in the private sphere and ensuring work-life
balance if there should be any issues which demand consideration.
Problem- Solving, Dialogue Oriented Collaboration Climate
e Does the workplace promote a climate of collaboration and
constructive dialogue?
A climate of collaboration is seen as having a positive impact across the
countries. This goes for vertical as well as horizontal collaboration. At
the core of this is dialogue and a question-and-answer-oriented interac-
tion as well as the culture of challenging ideas in a constructive manner.
However, tolerance for challenging ideas systemically and contradic-
tions is demanding for the work community. Establishing a well-
functioning team climate is therefore important in many ways. Research
has also shown that problem-solving situations and considerations are
part of a safe work practice of the work community and that personnel
meeting each other as individuals concerned with the well-being of each
other is linked to good work practice (Anttonen et al. 2008).
28 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
Social Support from Colleagues
e Which level of social support among colleagues is present in the
company?
The social work well-being has an impact on the psychological well-
being of the employees. Social support from colleagues is in many stud-
ies viewed as important aspects of the work well-being. Social support
makes the employee feel included in the community, helps if the em-
ployees have either professional or private difficulties and gives a form
of feeling of security for the employee.
Work factors related to musculoskeletal complaints and disorders
have been reviewed in a recent report from the National institute of
occupational health in Norway (Stami report 2008). Lower levels of so-
cial support are found to be an important risk factor for back pain and
sickness absence due to back pain.
Clarity of Roles
e Is it obvious who has the responsibility for different tasks and who
has different roles?
The distribution of various tasks among the employees and the level of
responsibility is important for the employees in order to experience a
certain amount of security and predictability among the working tasks.
Uncertainty regarding who has the final word implies a potential for
conflict and thereby a bad work well-being. Clarity gives the employee
predictability as well as control over the work tasks. Furthermore, clari-
ty makes it easier to know, what is expected by the employer.
Work Scheduling
e Is the work organized and scheduled in an appropriate way?
WE can to a large degree be defined by the way the work is scheduled
and the amount of work expected by the employer. This is a subject that
includes many sub-themes. A theme is how the work is scheduled with
regards to working hours, daytime/night-time and the opportunities to
get reasonable rest. If the employer expects that the employees work
many hours each day, it can be stressing and even though it can improve
the production volume in the short run, it can also undermine the effort
in the longer run as long as employees are stressed, rundown etc. Fur-
thermore, if the work is scheduled to hours making it difficult for the
employees to have a well-functioning work/life balance, it can in the
longer run cause absenteeism, high employee turnover etc.
Another aspect is whether the working hours are changing or more
or less fixed. Changing working hours, e.g. as part of shift work, imposes
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 29
a stress to the human organism in terms of difficulties with having a
circadian and biological rhythm.
Working Communities / Group Work
e Is the work organized in individual or group work?
Working communities is a way of organizing the work in a work place.
This implies that the individual employee is not necessarily responsible
for the total delivery in the project. Furthermore, organizing in working
communities also enables to ensure social support from colleagues as
well as distributing workloads among several employees.
In Finland, collaboration between members of the work community,
as well as different work organizations, is strongly emphasized. An indi-
vidual is an active doer and participator instead of a mere object in this
framework. This means adopting new work roles and the courage to
build new ways of collaboration. (Ahonen, Hussi, 2007).
Evaluation Tools
e Does the company evaluate the work well-being?
In order for a company to work strategically with work well-being it can
be necessary to assess the actual work well-being in the company. Using
tools in order to assess oneself enables companies to find out where
improvement is needed. Furthermore, it can form the basis of a dialogue
and a process for improvementof the work well-being.
This area is in many countries subject to presence of a lot of tools. In
Finland one finds the Y-step. The Y-STEP is based on five main steps in
health promotion: preparation, self-evaluation, planning, execution, and
evaluation. The goal is to make one’s own plan for well-being and health
promotion, and to make it work. The Y-STEP matrix contains evaluation
for 1) entrepreneur’s health and well-being, 2) organization of work, 3)
professional skill development, and 4) work environment. Score ranges
are ranked in terms of good practice, high standard practice and excel-
lent practice. (Anttonen et. al 2008)
In Denmark the work place evaluation scheme (Arbejdspladsvurder-
ing) is mandatory for all companies with employees. The purpose of the
scheme has been to providea tool for work environment evaluation. The
effect is not yet known, however, companies report that it has a positive
effect on work well-being.
In Finland a self-evaluation matrix has been designed for SMEs. It
gives a general view of the standard of well-being at work activities in
the organization. However, the calculated scores have no absolute com-
parative value and are not recommended for benchmarking, as the
needs of workplaces vary considerably. The matrix is best used as a ba-
sis for discussion to develop activities within an organization (Anttonen
et. al 2008).
30 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
In an empirical investigation of seven big Swedish firms (e.g.,
Swedbank) Johanson et al (2001) demonstrate how habits and routines
were evolutionary changed to support the new management and meas-
urement system addressing different intangible resources (WE and OH).
Personnel Policy
e Does the company have a personnel policy regarding work well-
being?
Personnel policy can be a strategic framework for defining well work
well-being practice in the company in order to make sure that there is a
common way to work with work environment. Furthermore, it can regu-
late some of the most obvious challenges and questions in work practice
in the company and be the foundation for a corporate culture regarding
various aspects of work well-being.
In the strategic wellness management index in Finland, personnel
policy was rated 10% out of 100% being one of five main indicator
groups.
Work Well-Being Programs and Plans
e Does the company have a work environment program or work well-
being plan in order to promote work well-being?
A strategic way to promote better work well-being is by using a work
well-being plan or establishing a program in order to promote work
well-being. Having identified focus areas or crucial challenges to address
either beforehand or as a reaction of an identified problem implies that
there is a possibility to address the issues. A program or a plan high-
lights the steps to be taken and places responsibility for the different
tasks to be taken. Research suggests that successful work well-being
requires a clearly defined programme with explicit goals and time limits.
The goals must be in proportion with the organization’s other activities
(Ahonen, Hussi, 2007).
An element which could be taken into consideration is how the com-
pany and the employees are involved in the formulation as well as the
execution of the plan. The Finnish Metal Age method for participatory
workplace health promotion was developed by Nåsman and Ilmarinen
(1999). The model is designed to identify problems and opportunities at
work and generate positive manageable solutions to them. The process
includes the personnel of the company or organization. All relevant de-
velopment areas in order to increase their well-being at work are identi-
fied. The prioritizing of initiatives is made by using a priority matrix. All
participants are asked to rate the importance, prevalence and possibility
to influence on a scale between 1 and 10. A total score is achieved by
multiplying the ratings. The development area with the highest score is
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 31
then taken for a more detailed analysis in order to agree on concrete
actions, person in charge of them, and deadlines for their completion.
Work well-being plans could relate to different issues such as:
e Bullying
e Physical hard work
e Work accidents
e Chemicals and other dangerous materials
e Sedentary work
Work Well-Being or Safety Organization
e Does the work place have an organizational unit handling work well-
being issues?
A company having a specific organizational unit in order to handle work
well-being issues has the ability of having work well-being on the agenda
for the entire company, continuously follow the development, take imme-
diate actions etc. A unit handling work well-being questions is seen as a
way to professionalize work well-being issues. It can take different forms
- as a human resources unit with professionals working with work well-
being, at a daily basis or as a committee handling political matters.
It ensures that work well-being is on the agenda from time to time
and it ensures that there is a forum in which to handle issues regarding
work well-being on a regular basis. This could be in terms of the daily
dealing with specific challenges as well as taking preventive actions. And
it could be in the form of organizing knowledge, feedback and making
more principal decisions regarding work well-being in the work place.
In the strategic wellness management index in Finland, wellness or-
ganization and budgeting was rated 14.5% out of 100% being one of five
main indicator groups (Aura et al. 2010). Danish companies having more
than 20 employees are required to have a safety committee and/or a
safety representative for the employees.
Certification in Work Well-Being
e Is the company certified in handling the work well-being in one way
or another?
A certification can work as a way to make the work more systematic
with work well-being as well as documenting the effects. Furthermore,
certification often implies that companies must spend more resources in
their work environment effort. Finally, it gives the opportunity to prove
to employees, candidates, customers etc. that the company works seri-
ously with work well-being.
In Denmark almost 3,000 companies have been certified by the Dan-
ish Working Environment Authority.
32 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
General Training and Competence Development
e Does the company provide training and education for their
employees?
An important factor for employees is whether they have opportunities to
develop their skills within their job. Education and training give the em-
ployees better possibilities to keep their job and perform better. Fur-
thermore it opens the opportunity for personal development.
The competence dimension is important because radical change in
the content and methods of work imply major development challenges
to professional qualifications practices. Deficiencies in professional skills
can rapidly turn into a serious problem in working life. This is also a
health-related threat as it creates a strain and increases work-related
stress. Traditional technical planning competence and non-verbal skills
are losing their importance. The skills related to verbal and symbolic
interaction are increasingly important as different networks and con-
tacts need to be used quickly when needed. Good connectivity through
social skills helps an individual meet the uncertainty of the future. (Aho-
nen, Hussi, 2007).
Furthermore, training and education of employees can affect general
economic performance in the companies directly, since many studies
have shown a relationship between educational level in the company
and productivity.
Regular Evaluation of Training Needs and Wishes
e Does the company in a systemized manner evaluate the need for
training for individual employees?
In order to find out if employees have the appropriate skills and there-
fore are able to perform their job with satisfaction and have a future at
the organization, the company can make a more regular evaluation of
the needs for this. This can be done in many ways but the important
thing is that it gives the opportunity to ensure that employees are and
feel valuable for the work place.
If not, employees can become insecure about their future job situa-
tion as well as unsatisfied with their own performance.
Training in Work Well-Being
e Does the company or any of the employees in the company
participate in training activities aimed at improving their work well-
being skills?
The purpose with work well-being training is to strengthen the work
well-being efforts in companies. In Denmark there has been an effort to
develop training sessions for employees and managers in companies on
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries — 33
work environment. There has been no evidence with regards to effects
of this kind of training (Arbejdstilsynet 2010).
Countering Repetitive Work and Hard Physical Work
e Does the work place have actions to lower the degree of repetitive
work and hard physical work as much as possible?
Repetitive work and hard physical work has been subject to many scien-
tific studies as well as efforts from public organizations through time.
The reason is that it is expected to correlate to a high degree with sick-
ness and physical attrition of the employees in the longer run.
Therefore, it is also relevant to consider how companies work to re-
duce the repetitive work as well as hard physical work (Arbejdstilsynet
2010), (AlexandersonKet al. 2004).
Ergonomics and Design
e Does the company work to improve the ergonomic conditions in
performing work tasks?
The physical aspect of work environment is important in all kind of
workplaces. This also includes the workplaces that are not affected by
hard physical labour or other physical risks. Some workplaces work
deliberately to improve the ergonomic conditions for their employees
regarding e.g. tables, laptops, work position, equipment, lifting tech-
niques etc. in order to ensure that the work is not eroding the people
involved in the shorter or longer terms.
Some companies do this preventive while others do this as a reaction
to complaints or musculoskeletal disorders.
Specific Action Plans and Action Concerning Noise, Chemicals,
Indoor Climate etc.
e Does the company have specific measures concerning improvement
of the physical surroundings and work well-being?
A great part of the work well-being concerns physical issues affecting
the health and well-being of the employees. This could relate to noise at
the work space, indoor climate (temperatures, humidity, ventilation,
hygiene etc.) but also relating to immediate risks like chemicals etc. To
avoid problems related to these kinds of risks, companies can take
measures to avoid causing physical risks at their employees. This could
be by introducing security equipment, training of employees, mainte-
nance and investments in physical facilities etc.
34 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
Preventive Actions Regarding Work Accidents
e Does the company take preventive actions regarding avoiding work
accidents?
In 2010 there were 44,381 work accidents in Denmark. 166 caused am-
putations and 39 were fatal (www.at.dk). This, of course, has major im-
plications for the health among employees as well as costs related to the
accidents. There are several ways companies can try to avoid work acci-
dents. This can relate to routine security reviews of the workplace or
implementation of action plans, but can also relate to investments in
security equipment as well as maintenance, training etc.
Physical Exercise
e Does the work place in any way support the physical well-being of
the employee in terms of giving access to or performing physical
exercise in relation to the work place?
A central aspect of general and physical well-being is the general health
conditions which also influences the well-being at the work place as well
as the general well-being and performance of the employee.
Physical exercise has initially been a central aspect of promoting
work environment because it is documented to bring positive physical
effects and also increases mental resources (Ahonen, Hussi 2007).
Health Checks
e Does the workplace provide health checks for the employees?
An aspect of health promotion policies in workplaces refers to a general
health promotion policy. Within this area it has become even more used
in many workplaces to give the employees access to health checks which
are supposed to promote their general health and well-being. This is
expected to promote workability as well as loyalty towards the work
place as long as it is voluntary.
There exists mixed results regarding the impact of health checks and
health policy in companies, however, if the effort is targeted at risk fac-
tors and risk groups, there is an expectation that it could have a positive
impact on work well-being as well as productivity.
Rehabilitation Courses, Medical Treatment, Intoxicant Programs etc.
e Does the work place offer health promotion activities to the
employees including medical care?
In recent years health promotion programs directed towards employees
has seen increased importance in workplaces. This is part of a proactive
taking care of the health of the employees which is expected to yield
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 35
positive returns for the companies due to lower absenteeism and higher
productivity among employees as well as promoting the health of the
employees.
The Finnish DRUVAN-project included several of these aspects as
part of a larger work environment concept. However, some research
indicates that there is no direct linked relationship to productivity (Kris-
tensen 2010).
3.2 Physical Conditions and Exposures
Physical conditions and exposures constitute a central part of work well-
being affecting employees’ psychosocial and physical health.
 Physical Conditions and Exposures
Indicator
Physical conditions
Light
Noise
Temperature
High repetition of motion
Work involves simultaneous lifting and suboptimal movement/positioning
Work involves static load on muscles
Exposure
Production or use of certain chemicals
Exposure to smoke, dust, fumes (skin contact/breathing/eye contact)
Production by using technical equipment and machinery
Work includes risk of falling from heights
Work includes traffic risk
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
Light
e Does the light give optimal working conditions?
A new Danish project hypothesises a strong connection between lack of
exposure to daylight and the incidence of breast cancer. Also, there is a
known relationship between a range of illnesses and working late hours
- some of this relationship is sometimes hypothesised to be caused by
the lack of sunlight. Further, too little light can imply risks of working
accidents. Too little or too much light can be stressfull and imply difficult
working conditions in terms of exertion of the eye, headache etc. In us-
ing computers or other screens, light can imply bad visibility etc.
Noise
e What is the level of noise in the work place?
Noise can imply unpleasant working conditions as well as be damaging
to the hearing capabilities of the employees. Too high a level of noise can
cause hearing problems, tinnitus etc.
36 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
Temperature
e Is the temperature at the work place high, low or shifting?
High and low working temperatures imply that employees can have
difficulties regarding the general health state among the employees.
Furthermore, it can cause bad working climate in terms of unpleasant
conditions with too high, too low or changing work temperature.
High Amount of Repetition in Motion
e Does the work imply that the employees are exposed to a high
amount of repetition in motion?
Repetition in motion can take many forms. One well-known example is
that of the work carried out in large butcheries. Another example may be
that of secretaries or other people typing on computers for many hours.
A high amount of repetition in motion implies that employees risk phys-
ical attrition.
Work Involves Simultaneous Lifting and Suboptimal
Movement/Positioning
Musculoskeletal complaints and disorders are the most common cause
of sick-leave and disability pension in Norway. Pain in the neck, shoul-
ders or upper back is the most prevalent musculoskeletal disorder and is
experienced by two of five in the Norwegian working population on a
monthly basis. Among these, nearly 60 per cent report that these com-
plaints are wholly or partly related to their job. Pain in the lumbar or
lower back and pain in the hips, legs and feet are also common symp-
toms. Between 40 and 60 per cent of the Norwegian working population
with musculoskeletal complaints report that these wholly or partly are
related to their job, but there are major differences between occupation-
al groups (Source: Survey of living conditions, Statistics Norway 2009).
Back pain is a common cause of sick leave and disability pension in
Norway. Documented work related risk factors include work operations
including simultaneous lifting and bending positions.
Work Involves Static Loads
Static loads include standing still or walking much in the same position,
e.g. with arms raised. Static workloads on muscles have a well-
documented relation to muscle pain, back pain, neck pain, pain in the
arms and shoulders, etc.
Pain in the neck, shoulders or upper back is the most prevalent mus-
culoskeletal disorders and is experienced by two of five in the Norwe-
gian working population on a monthly basis. Among these nearly 60 per
cent report that these complaints are wholly or partly related to their
job. Pain in the lumbar or lower back and pain in the hips, legs and feet
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 37
are also common symptoms. Between 40 and 60 per cent of the Norwe-
gian working population with musculoskeletal complaints report that
these wholly or partly are related to their job, but there are major differ-
ences between occupational groups (Source: Survey of living conditions,
Statistics Norway 2009).
Work factors related to musculoskeletal complaints and disorders
have been reviewed in a recent report from the National institute of
occupational health in Norway (Stami report 2008) showing that pain in
the neck and shoulders are common, and can have many and complex
causes, among these static loads of the neck muscles, especially working
with upraised arms without support
Production or Use of Certain Chemicals
e Above normal exposure to certain chemicals (skin contact/
breathing/eye contact)?
If the work implies working with chemicals, this involves to a great deal
a risk concerning the health of the employees. Chemicals can be both
fatal and involve permanent external as well as internal injuries. Chemi-
cals can cause short term illness but can also have long term effects for
the health.
Exposure to Smoke, Dust, Fumes (Skin Contact/Breathing/Eye
Contact)
e Does the work well-being include a riskof inhaling unhealthy
particles etc. through the human airways?
Inhaling particles, dust, smoke etc. implya variety of risks. This can have
consequences for the general well-being and work satisfaction but can
also imply the risk of the health of employees, regarding short term ill-
ness but also in the longer run concerning cancer or other airway dis-
eases. Some jobs involve this exposure to a larger extent than other, e.g.
in some production facilities or work in the traffic.
Work Accident Risks In Terms ofUsing Technical Equipment and
Machinery
e Does the work include working with technical equipment and
machinery which imply a general risk for work accidents?
Some jobs are performed in settings where there is a high risk of work
accidents as a consequence of using technical machinery. This can imply
risks of cuts and wounds and can in some incidents lead to amputation
of body parts.
38 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
Work Includes Risk of Falling from Heights
Construction workers are examples of personnel having a job with a
large risk of falling from heights. Falling can be fatal or cause disabilities.
Work Includes Traffic Risk
e Does the work imply risk of traffic accidents?
Many jobs involve moving in traffic. Moving in traffic most of the day
increases the risk of being part of a traffic accident. This involves many
different jobs — bus driver, lorry driver, taxi driver, post man, police of-
ficer etc. Some of those have a larger risk concerning traffic accidents
than others. Furthermore, there are jobs performed in the traffic - con-
struction workers, road construction workers etc. working in the traffic.
Traffic accidents evidently involve large risks of the health of employees.
Furthermore, it involves a production loss if it occurs.
3.3 Psychosocial Conditions
Psychosocial conditions also constitute a central part of work well-being
and affect employees’ psychosocial and physical health. Here, the psychoso-
cial indicators are tentatively divided into three categories, namely influ-
ence, demands, and work-reward balance and leadership. This section
draws on and was informed by the collection of indicators across six coun-
tries made available courtesy to Aasnaes. Many of the indicators in this sec-
tion coincide in topic with the indicators of “company practice”. However,
the indicators below should first and foremost measure how the psychoso-
cial conditions are experienced by employees, whereas the indicators above
in the company practices section are meant to measure what the company
does do, and what it doesn’t. Hence, the important difference is one of lev-
els: Company practice is on the company level, whereas psychosocial condi-
tions are here taken to be at the individual or employee level.
 Psychosocial Conditions
Indicator
Influence
Freedom to decide one’s own work tasks
Frames allowing deliverance of quality desired by one self
Freedom to organise the day, including brakes
Demands
Work at high speed
Large work load
High cognitive demands
Work-reward balance and leadership
Clarity of expectations in work
Trust and respect from leadership
Predictability of work
Work-reward balance
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 39
Influence
The indicators in this category are important as measures of the individ-
ual’s ability to counter basic psychological imbalances, where desires
and the way, a person would like the world to be is not in correspond-
ence to the way, the real world is. Among important factors in counter-
ing imbalances are:
e Freedom to decide one’s own work tasks
e Frames allowing deliverance of quality desired by one self
e Freedom to organise the day, including breakes
The freedom to decide, what tasks, one wants to work with is an obvious
way to counter the basic psychological imbalance: If you can decide to
work with different tasks, then (hopefully) you can decide to work with
the work tasks that you desire.
If the frames, in which one’s work is situated, do not allow deliver-
ance of the quality that one desires, then this is an obvious source of a
psychological imbalance. If the frames do allow for the quality that one
desires, then that is a good starting point in countering imbalances.
The freedom to organise one’s own day, including breaks, also has
to do with the ability to affect and adapt the “real world” in order to
make it correspond to the desired world - and thus avoid psychologi-
cal imbalance.
Demands
High demands - qualitatively as well as quantitatively - are an obvious
source affecting the psychosocial conditions at the work place. Im-
portant factors are:
e Work at high speed
e Large work loads
e High cognitive demands
High demands affect the psychosocial conditions at the work place be-
cause it puts individuals under pressure. Work at high speed, for in-
stance, can instigate development of stress symptoms, because it in-
creases the amount of resources the individual has to employ in order to
overcome the work. This, in turn, increases the levels of certain hor-
mones, etc. - in some instances into adverse levels, which can highly
affect individuals’ well-being.
Work-Reward Balance and Leadership
The work-reward balance is of great importance to the psychosocial
conditions at the workplace. It is important, that individuals feel their
work is rewarded in a manner, which is proportional to their efforts.
40 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
Also, and in connection to this, it is important, that individuals feel that
their efforts at the workplace are recognised.
Important factors are:
e Clarity of expectations in work
e Trust and respect from leadership
e Predictability of work
e Work-reward balance
Clarity of expectations is important, because unclear expectations make
it difficult to manoeuvre and to predict what outcome is desired by man-
agement. This raises difficulties of receiving recognition, once the work
tasks are completed, and it raises uncertainty of outcomes as well as
rewards. Uncertainty can be a source of psychological imbalance.
Trust and respect from leadership is important for obvious reasons.
Predictability of work is important, because it lowers uncertainty about
when to work and how much - making it possible to predict periods
with late hours, etc.
3.4 Well-Being
The work well-being indicators measure the “result”/output/effect in
terms of the state of the workers’ health and safety, broadly defined.
This can be done on basis of two main categories of indicators:
e Fact-based indicators, that is, indicators measuring the state of the
work well-being in an “objective” manner, as opposed to
e Self-reported indicators, or “subjective” measurement of the work
well-being
Health and Safety
Indicator
 
Health
Yearly amountof work related diagnoses
Yearly amount of reporting sick or ill
Long term sickness
Mortality rate
Average retirement age
Number of recipients of benefit for those unfit for work
Stress
Depression
Safety
Work related injuries
Self-reported work related health problems
Work related deaths
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 41
Yearly Amount ofWork Related Diagnoses
e How many work related diagnoses per year in the company?
The number of work related diagnoses has an obvious connection to the
state of the workers’ health. Also, it will be a precise measure, because it
rests upon the evaluation of workers by doctors, many of whom have
years of experience in that field. However, it will also be a somewhat
conservative measure: Typically, what is recognised as a work related
illness - and hence which illnesses actually fall under the definition of
“work related diagnoses” - is not necessarily exhaustive of what might
be termed illnesses with relation to the work well-being.
Yearly Amount of Reporting Sick or II]
e How many workers report sick or ill for how many days per year
The number ofworkers as well as the number of days may be interesting
in respect to indicating work well-being caused illnesses. It could be
hypothesised that typically, reporting sick or ill for shorter periods of
time (i.e. 3-5 days) will not be related to work well-being. Longer peri-
ods of sickness or illness may indicate, however, that the work well-
being affects the workers in question in adverse ways.
An argument opposing the use of this indicator is — to state the obvi-
ous - that not all illness or sickness relates in any way to the work well-
being. However, the argument in favour of this indicator is, that there
will be a tendency to higher levels and longer periods of illness and sick-
ness when the work well-being provides adverse conditions than there
will be, when the work well-being is better.
Long Term Sickness
e What is the number of employees away becauseof long term
illnesses?
e How long are average periods of sickness?
The argument in favour of this indicator is that a large number of em-
ployees on sick leave in one company indicates a working environment,
which supports workers in avoiding illness or sickness less well. This
does not mean that there is a guarantee that a high number of employ-
ees away for longer terms due to sickness is related to, say, a very stress-
ful working environment. However, it is a narrow thought that some-
thing somehow goes wrong in that company, and that it makes the em-
ployees sick. Further, this could also be true for a whole industry or
sector. That is, if there is a high rate of workers away for prolonged peri-
ods of time in a sector (compared to other sectors), then that sector may
pose a problem with regard to work well-being.
42 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
In addition, the length of the periods, which employees are away be-
cause of illness may be taken as an indicator of how bad things are. If in
one company, employees on sick leave are away for several months, this
indicates a more hostile working environment compared to companies
where the average lengths of sick leaves are, say, a few weeks.
Mortality Rates
e What is the mortality rate among workers in a company?
The mortality rate may be an indicator which is better used as an indica-
tor of more general levels of work well-being (and other factors) in, say,
a country or a region. This is because the mortality rate will be extreme-
ly low in most companies - and often not defined (i.e. no workers have
died while employed in that company).
However, it may certainly be the case that larger corporations, as for
instance large financial companies, law firms or ship builders may have
a large enough group of employed people so as to have a well-defined
mortality rate. In these instances, comparing the mortality rate of the
company to that of the country as a whole will be a good indicator of
factors affecting the workers in that particular company. This is because
the mortality rate of the country as a whole already “contains” and re-
flects all of the factors affecting the workers but have nothing to do with
the company-i.e., the difference in mortality rates must owe to factors
in play in that company. This could also be true for a whole sector of
companies - that is, working environment could be especially “deadly”
in the ship building industry, for instance.
One pitfall in using this indicator is that mortality rates may be af-
fected by a whole working life, whereas they are less likely to be affected
by the job that “happened to be” the last one in a working life. This is to
say, mortality rates may be better suited for measuring work well-
beings of a sector, rather than the work well-being of a company. Mortal-
ity rates may still tell us something about the work well-being in a com-
pany, though. If in one company, the mortality rate doubles one of the
sector as a whole, then probably, this is not without connection to the
work well-being in that specific company.
Average Retirement Age
e The average age of retirement
If, in a company, there is a hostile working environment, or the work can
be characterised as one witha lot of heavy lifting and hard, physical work,
it will possibly lead to many early retirements when compared to compa-
nies where this is not the case. That is because workers will be worn down
and simply not capable of working for as many years as workers are in
other businesses - or workers will seek to avoid the hostile (psycho-
social) working environment, and retire when possible. Again, for this
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 43
indicator, the average retirement age of the company must be compared
to the average retirement age of the country (or region) as a whole, since
obviously, old age retirement regulations and retirement plans will have
an effect on the average age of retirement in any one given company. As
for mortality rates, this indicator could be used for surveying the working
environment in a whole industry or sector.
Number of Recipients of Benefits for Those Unfit to Work
The number of recipients of benefits for those unfit to work can be an
indicator of the working environment in a company or a sector in so far
as those recipients are former workers in that company or sector. If
there is a high share of workers ending their career early by starting to
receive benefits for those unfit to work - again comparatively — then this
may indicate an adverse working environment.
Work Related Injuries
The number of work related injuries is an obvious indicator of the (phys-
ical) working environment. If there is a - comparatively — high level of
work related injuries, it is probably the case that in this company, there
is an adverse (physical) working environment. DK 2010: 4,435 fractures,
116 amputations (www.at.dk)
Self-Reported Work-Related Health Problems
This is obviously an indicator of the working environment, as workers are
asked to report work-related health problems. However, as straightfor-
ward as it is, there are also some problems that must be addressed before
using this indicator. These are the well-known criticisms of the use of
survey questions in general, and its use in relation to strategic information
in particular. Thus, work-related health problems may be understated by
workers if this is perceived to be more opportunistic by the workers an-
swering the survey. If the company management reads the survey, this
may well be the case. Further, this may be the case even when surveys are
answered anonymously - and even if management does not have the right
to read out the results of that particular company.
Number ofWork Related Deaths
e The number of deaths related to work
This indicator has a very clear and obvious connection to the working
environment. However, it should be compared to that of the country as a
whole in order for the researcher to be able to draw conclusions on the
working environment of a particular firm - for much the same reasons
as comparing the death rate to that of the country (or region) as a whole.
One can argue, of course, that one work related death is one too many.
44 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
However, if we wish to classify the working environment, then that has
to be done relative to something else.
In Denmark 39 was killed in work related deaths in 2010 (www.at.dk)
Stress
e The number of employees with stress
Stress can come from many sources. It can be the result of demands at
work which are perceived to be higher than what can be attained, or it
can owe to a hostile working environment. In common, it could be said
that individual perceptions of the surrounding conditions, challenges,
and opportunities do not match individual goals and aspirations.
Depression
e Number of employees with a depression
This indicator may be self-reported or it could be fact-based, namely if it
is considered to be the number of employees that have a depression
diagnose. Obviously, workers could also be asked whether or not they
have reported sick because ofa depression (diagnosed or not). Depres-
sion is known to have a connection to (Stansfeld 2006, Bonde 2008):
e High job demands combined with low control and low social support
e Effort-reward imbalance
e Poor climate of cooperation (“team climate”)
Hence, there is a strong relationship between depression and the psy-
cho-social working environment.
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 45
4. Data Availability and Data
Quality
The Nordic experts have searched for national data regarding work well-
being and work well-being practices. The indicator lists are organised in
four groups corresponding to the four groups in the analytical model.
The purpose is to test data availability. The availability and relevance of
each of the indicators is described in detail in the appendix. This chapter
gives an overview of the analytical possibilities by reporting overall
grades given to the indicators on basis of the grading given by each of
the countries in appendix A. The chapter is organised in order to reflect
the indicator groups.
4.1 Company Work Well-Being Practice
A group of indicators is supposed to measure the general company prac-
tice with relevance for work well-being across the four Nordic countries.
This group of indicators is in general available across the Nordic countries.
However, there appears to be difficulties in Finland regarding linking the
data to company performance. This makes it difficult to carry out analyses
based on the indicators. The possible analyses will refer to descriptive
statistics only and not measure impact on company performance.
Most of the indicators are furthermore available in Denmark, Nor-
way, and Sweden. There are individual indicators not available in most
of the countries.
Generally, many of the indicators are, however, based upon the per-
ception of the employees, since the availability of factual register-based
information is limited, and furthermore the information is only to a lim-
ited extend based upon factual information from the management. This
implies a risk that the employees only refer to their own perception,
based on their departmental whereabouts in the company, while prac-
tices may be different in other departments. On the other hand it is ques-
tionable whether the practices as described by management will be
more accurate. In some of the questions, there are data from both man-
agement and employees. If a given sample covers employees as well as
management from the same company, it makes it possible to doa validi-
ty check regarding the data. However, the possibilities to do this are
expected to be limited.
It is possible to analyse this part of the model in Denmark, Norway,
and Sweden. However, the analysis must be based on the fact that the
information regarding the companies will mainly be defined by the em-
ployees. It constitutes a methodological issue whether this is acceptable.
On the other hand, it is necessary to acknowledge that a great deal of the
impact of work well-being is linked to the individual perception.
Some of the indicators regarding company work well-being practice
are only to a limited extent covered in the Nordic countries. The data has
to a great extend been covered in Denmark, making it possible to conduct
analysis on Danish data. The Danish data are of a relatively good quality.
It does not appear possible to make benchmark and descriptive sta-
tistics across the Nordic countries with respect to all of the indicators
regarding company work well-being practice.
In the table below presence of good data (A) for each indicator is
marked with bold, while adequate (B) is marked withaitalics and ques-
tionable (C) or no present data has got no marks.
Work Well-Being Indicators
 
INDICATOR DK TOTAL
Job control and influence
Feedback
Reward systems and acknowledgement
Demands and expectations
Flexible job descriptions
Social support from management
Problem solving, dialogue oriented collaboration climate
Social support from colleagues
Clarity of roles
Work scheduling
Working communities / group work
Evaluation tools
Personnel policy
Work well-being programs and plans
Work well-being or safety organization
Certification in work well-being
General training and competence development
Regular evaluation of training needs and wishes
Training in work well-being
Countering repetitive work and hard physical work B
Ergonomics and design
Specific action plans and action concerning noise, chemicals, indoor B
climate etc.
Preventive actions regarding work accidents B
Physical exercise B
Health checks B
Rehabilitation courses, medical treatment, intoxicant programs etc. B
 
Comment: Good data (A) for each indicator is marked with bold, while adequate (B) is
marked with italics and questionable (C) or no present data has got no marks.
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011
4.2 Indicators Regarding Physical Conditions and
Exposures
The third group of indicators reflect the specific physical conditions for
employees in a company.
This group of indicators is in general available across the Nordic
countries. However, there appears to be difficulties in Finland regarding
48 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
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linking the data to company performance and in Norway with the gen-
eral availability of some of the indicators. This makes it difficult to carry
out analyses based on all of the indicators for Norway and Finland. For
Finland, where it is not possible to link data, there might still be some
descriptive statistics that may provide valid information.
There are only two indicators where data is not available in one or
more of the countries and there is a high data as such.
The indicators are based on perceptions by the workers and this has
some advantages as well as disadvantages. The advantages are that it is
the workers that experience the physical conditions and exposures in
their daily work and as such has an extensive knowledge of what they
encounter. There is, however, no guarantee that the assessments from
the workers are valid for all the workers as there might be a bias to-
wards e.g. production workers with more exposure than administrative
workers.
This makes it possible to analyse the model for Denmark and Sweden
bearing in mind the fact that the input to the model is based on assess-
ments of the employees.
Physical Conditions and Exposures
 
INDICATOR DK FI NO SE TOTAL
Light A E B B B
Noise A E B B B
Temperature A C A B B
High amount of repetition in motion A C B B B
Work involves simultaneous lifting and suboptimal movement/ A C B B B
positioning
Work involves static loads A CG B B c
Production or use of certain chemicals A Cc B Cc
Exposure to smoke, dust, fumes (skin contact/breathing/eye contact) A E Cc B E
Work accident risks in terms of using technical equipment and B CE CE B E
machinery
Work includes risk of falling from heights A C C
Work includes traffic risk B B C B C
 
Comment: Good data (A) for each indicator is marked bold, while adequate (B) is marked
with italics and questionable (C) or no present data has got no marks.
Source: DAMVAD and expert group 2011
4.3 Indicators Regarding Psychosocial Conditions
The fourth group of indicators reflect the psychosocial conditions in the
work place. This group of indicators is mainly indicators of an individual
perception of how one is affected. Here, it therefore is highly appropriate
with individual self-evaluation.
The psychosocial conditions at the workplace are to a great extend
covered in both Denmark and Sweden. Norway states that it is not pos-
sible to link Norwegian individual data to companies, however. This
needs to be clarified. If this is possible, it gives great opportunities, be-
sides Finland. Most of the issues are covered in Sweden, where they also
have a high quality, and in Denmark with adequate quality. The same
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 49
appears to be true in Norway if it is possible to link the individual data to
the company data. Furthermore, the Swedish and Danish data are, in
general, able to link company performance and company business regis-
ter information. Furthermore, the main part of the indicators seems to
have responses from both employees and employers.
Across the Nordic countries, it appears as if it is possible to bench-
mark and analyse descriptive statistics of several of the indicators.
Psychosocial conditions
 
INDICATOR DK FI NO SE TOTAL
Freedom to decide one’s own work tasks B € C B Cc
Frames allowing deliverance of quality desired by one self B E
Freedom to organise the day, including brakes CE C A C
Work at high speed B € C B CE
Large work loads A Cc A B
High cognitive demands B Cc C B E
Clarity of expectations in work B € A B
Contradiction demands B C G
Trust and respect from leadership B € G A B
Trust and respect from colleagues A E
Predictability of work B C E
Motivation A E
Work-reward balance Cc C A Cc
 
Comment: Good data (A) for each indicator is marked with bold, while adequate (B) is
marked with italics and questionable (C) or no present data has got no marks.
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011
4.4 Indicators Regarding Well-Being
The indicators regarding well-being are in general covered by the Nordic
countries but it is almost exclusively in Denmark and in Sweden that the
data is of a sufficient quality. However, the issue regarding Finnish and
Norwegian data refers to the linking possibilities, since there are data in
both countries.
The data which is covered by Denmark and Sweden are, however, not
the same except for six indicators which will have to form the basis for
any comparable analysis.
For these six indicators analyses can be made but it is important to bear
in mind that the well-being is not necessarily related to the work place
in cases where there are or are not reported illnesses. Furthermore the
qualities of people to assess their own well-being in a common and con-
sistent manner are limited and as such the quality of much of the data
will be conditioned by this.
The overall assessment is, however, that the analysis can be carried
out for Denmark and Sweden given the similarities in the covered ques-
tions. If the Norwegian and Finnish data were linkable to company per-
formance, the data quality is supposed to be quite high.
50 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
Well-Being
 
INDICATOR DK Fi NO SE
Yearly amount of work related diagnoses B € C
Yearly amount of reporting sick or ill
Short term sickness (new indicator Ulf)
Long term sickness
Mortality rates
Average retirement age
Number of recipients of benefits for those unfit to work
Work related injuries
Self-reported work-related health problems
Number of work related deaths
Stress Cc
Depression EC C A
 
Comment: Good data (A) for each indicator is marked bold, while adequate (B) is marked
with italics and questionable (C) or no present data has got no marks.
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
4.5 General Data Quality Assessment
The chart below summaries the results of the analysis in the five indica-
tor groups. The chart shows where data is available for econometric
modelling and impact assessments.
The overall picture is that there are analytical possibilities across the
Nordic countries. Especially it looks as if, the Danish and Swedish data
are applicable to a large extend in most of the areas. It also seems as if
the Norwegian data might be applicable, if they are able to be linked to
the companies. This is the case in many other areas, where DAMVAD has
worked with Norwegian micro data. But this needs to be finally clarified.
The feasibility study of phase 2 of the proposed project will do so. The
same might be true for Finland. However, DAMVAD has no experience in
working with Finnish data.
Across most part of the indicator groups, it will be possible to make
some benchmarking, since this does not call for a linking opportunity to
company performance indicators.
However, regarding company work well-being practice, the data is
very limited across the countries. This implies that this part of the analy-
sis may primarily be possible to carry out for Danish work places.
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries = 51
wnUDP PD >
nm AAA Anan A a O
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Generalcompany
 characteristics   
Denmark .
ENGSlevecgvarnciecossedsencessissecKsseveasseNvensns’Ei
 P hysi cal  
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   a nd  
  Company work   exp  >| — Productivity
wellbeing practice
  Psycho-  
Denmark,   
Sweden, social
Denmark,   
Sweden,
(Norway)   condit ions (Norway)Sweden,(Norway)  
Chart 5.1. Data avaliablefor econometric analysis
Source: DAMVAD and expert group 2011.
Most of the data is based on self-evaluation and reporting across the
Nordic countries. Hence, the personal perception among the employees
regarding work well-being will be the most common source of infor-
mation. In some cases, especially in Denmark, the employer will be a
source of information as well. Finally, the group of indicators regarding
well-being in all the reported countries are to a large extend based on
register data, making it highly comparable.
There appears to be a large degree of cross-country comparability in
terms of the formulation of the questions.
To summarise, it appears to be possible to analyse the relationship
between work well-being and productivity in the Nordic countries.
However, it is mostly possible for Danish and Swedish data.
Furthermore, it is difficult on a Nordic level to analyse company level
work well-being practice. Finally, the analysis will primarily be based on
individual perceptions from employees, and, to a lesser extent, percep-
tions from workplaces, and to a minor extent based on registry data.
52 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
     
5. References
Ahonen & Hussi (2007): «Work ability and human resource reporting - the Finnish
experience.» In Johanson, U., G. Ahonen, R. Roslender (eds.) 2007: «Work, health
and management control.» Thomson Fakta. Stockholm.
Ahonen (2008): «Inspired by Knowledge in Organisations.» Publications of the Swe-
dish School of Economics and Business Administration. Nr. 182. Helsinki.
Alexanderson, K., A. Norlund (ed.): «Sickness absence — causes, consequences and
practices. A systematic literature review by the Swedish Council on Technology
Assessment in Health Care.» Scandinavian Journal of Public Health Supplement
2004; 63: 12-30.
Anttonen et al. (2008): «Well-being at work - New innovations and practices.» Fin-
nish Institute of Occupational Health. Helsinki 2008.
Arbejdstilsynet (2010): Fremtidens arbejdsmiljø 2020: Copenhagen.
Aura O., G. Ahonen, J. IImarinen (2010): «Strategic Wellness Management in Finland
- the first national survey of the management of employee well-being,» Journal of
Occupational and Environmental Medicine Vol. 52 No 12, p. 1145-1282.
Becker, Brian E. and Mark A. Huselid (1998): «High Performance Work Systems and
Firm Performance: A Synthesis of Research and Managerial Implications.» Re-
search in Personnel and Human Resources Management, 16:53-101.
Bonde JP. (2008): «Psychosocial factors at work and risk of depression: a systematic
reviewof the epidemiological evidence.» Occupational and Environmental Medi-
cine 65(7):438-45.
Harte, S.Å. (2009): «Arbete, arbetsmiljö och arbetsmiljöarbete. I Perspektiv på ar-
betsmiljöarbete.» Red Hörte, S.Å. och Christmansson, M. Högskolan Halmstad.
Johanson, U., M. Mårtensson, and M. Skoog, (2001): «Measuring to understand intan-
gible performance drivers.» European Accounting Review, 10:3, pp. 1-31
Kristensen, Tage (2010): «Trivsel og produktivitet — to sider af samme sag.» HK
Danmark: Copenhagen.
Lazarus, Richard S. (1999): «Stress and emotion.» Freedom Association Books, London.
Nasman, O., J. IImarinen (1999): «Metal-Age: A process for improving well-being and
total productivity.» Experimental Aging Research Vol 25 No. 4 USA.
STAMI-rapport. Argang 9, nr 22 (2008): «Arbeid som årsak til muskelskjelettlidelser.
Kunnskapsstatus.»
Stansfeld, S., B. Candy (2006): «Psychosocial work environment and mental health--a
meta-analytic review.» Scandinavian Journal of Work and Environmental Health
Vol. 32(6):443-62.
Van der Mer, P. and K. Ringdal (2009): «Personnel Review. Farnborough.» Vol. 38 No
5, pp. 526.
6. Sammenfatning
Denne rapport indeholder en indikatormanual til måling af arbejdsmiljø
og trivsel. Dermed fuldender rapporten fase 1 af et projekt i tre faser om
den mulige sammenhæng mellem arbejdsmiljø, trivsel og produktivitet.
Dette forhold - mellem trivsel og produktivitet - er blevet undersøgt før.
Men der er - ifølge forfatternes kendskab - ikke tidligere gennemført
undersøgelser af sammenhængen med brug af grundig økonometrisk
analyse, på tværs af de nordiske lande. Denne indikatormanual er et
første skridt på vejen til at gennemføre en sådan analyse.
Indikatormanualen skitserer og definerer et fælles nordisk koncept
for arbejdsmiljø, trivsel, arbejdsevne og andre begreber i relation til
dette område. Den udpeger endvidere indikatorer til måling af de for-
skellige aspekter af arbejdsmiljøet. Endelig præsenterer rapporten data-
kilder for hver af de identificerede indikatorer fra de fire lande Finland,
Sverige, Norge og Danmark.
Datakilderne er vurderet i henhold til tilgængeligheden af data, rele-
vans, tilgængelighed, nøjagtighed og sammenlignelighed på tværs af de
fire lande. Manualen viser, at selv om nogle af de indikatorer, som kunne
være nyttige i en fuldstændig beskrivelse af arbejdsmiljø og trivsel, ikke
kan målesi alle de ovennævnte lande, synes der at være et godt grundlag
for grundige økonometriske analyser af forholdet mellem arbejdsmiljø,
trivsel og produktivitet.
Projektet, der finansieres af Nordisk Ministerråd, er gennemført af en
gruppe eksperter, bestående af
e Otto Melchior Poulsen, Det Nationale Forskningscenter for
Arbejdsmiljø (Danmark)
e Guy Ahonen, Työterveyslaitos / Finnish Institute of Occupational
Health (FIOH), Finland
e Steinar Asnaess, STAMI, Norge
e UlfJohansson professor ved Målardalen Universitet, Sverige
i samarbejde med det forskningsbaserede konsulentfirma DAMVAD i
København, Danmark
7. Appendix A: Data Availability
and Data Quality
This data appendix prepares the ground for the analyses of the hypothe-
sised relationship in the indicator manual, and other analyses in the area
of working environment and productivity. As such, it is quite lengthy. This,
however, owes to the fact that it was found necessary at the outset - and
has, indeed, proven to be necessary - to go systematically and thoroughly
through the different sources of data in the Nordic countries in order to
produce a data appendix, which was comprehensive to an extent that al-
lows empirical analysis to be carried out based on the manual.
There are still indicators, where clarification of the possible data
sources in the Nordic countries will be of importance. This will be han-
dled in the proposed phase 2 of the project, which constitutes a feasibil-
ity study with regards to data collection with respect to the indicators in
the manual.
7.1 Testing Data Availability
An important element in the project about work-well-being and produc-
tivity is to test data availability across the Nordic countries and find out
whether these data are comparable with each other on each of the iden-
tified theoretical indicators.
The indicator-data will be identified by each of the participants and
tested according to three concepts:
e Relevance
e Accuracy
e Availability
For each of the three testing concepts the indicators will be given a
grade:
e A= Very good.
e B= Good.
e C=Acceptable.
Relevance
A relevant indicator is close to the theoretical indicator, it is intended to
measure. Each of the indicators are to be given a grade - A or B. A signi-
fies a direct measure. B signifies a proxy measure.
Accuracy
The accuracy of an indicator is the degree to which the indicator correct-
ly estimates or describes the quantities or characteristics it is designed
to measure. Accuracy has two dimensions: Data collection method and
degree of cross-country standardisation:
 Accuracy
Data collection National statistical Surveys about perception of Fact-based Opinion-based
method offices, register data work environment and self- surveys survey
evaluation to employees
Mark A A B E
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
The following element will be evaluated by DAMVAD when all of the
indicators have been reported:
A ccuracy
The indicator is cross-country Fully comparable Comparable to some Comparable to
comparable extent minor extent
Mark A B Cc
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
Availability
The concept of availability relates to the accessibility of a given indicator
in various countries and for a given time frame.
 Availability
The number of Nordic countries At least 4 3 2
where the indicator is present
Mark A B E
Coverage over time Collected each year Collected every 2-3 Collected every 4-5
years years or less
Mark A B C
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
The “Overall” Score
The overall grade is given based on how well the given indicator per-
formed on the previously mentioned quality dimensions. The grades
have the following meaning:
58 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
e A= Good: At least 3 A's and no C's
e B=Acceptable: At least 2 A's and max one C
e C=Questionable: Less than 2 A's or more than one C OR linking
possibilities is given aC
Scores
 
Name of indicator Good Acceptable Questionable
Indicator A B Cc
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.2 Indicators Regarding Company Work Well-Being
Practice
The physical and psychosocial well-being of the employee is affected by
the way the company functions in general. This includesalot of different
aspects such as:
e organisation of work
e organisation of work hours
e individual influence
e the demand and work load
e supervisory practises
e culture and social support
These factors influence the work well-being of the employee whether they
are subject to deliberate work well-being actions and effort by the work
place or not. Some of the factors may be adjusted easily as a consequence
of a work well-being action while others can be more difficult to adjust.
Some abbreviations are used in the text and tables below to describe
the data in the four countries. The abbreviations are explained in table 7.1.
Abbreviations
 
Country Abbrevia- —_ Explanation
tion
Finland EWCS European Working Conditions Survey. European Working Conditions Observatory
ECS European Company Survey, Eurofound
MEADOW Measuring the dynamics of organisations and work. Project, in preparation. CEE
EODS European Occupational Disease Statistics
WHS Work & Health Survey, Finland, FIOH, (Työ ja Terveys), evry 3 years
WCB Työolobarometri (Working Condition Barometer), Finland, MOL, annual
SWBS Strategic Well-being Survey, Excenta & FIOH, Finland, annual
LFS Labour Force Survey, Statistics Finland
SSI Statistics of The Social Insurance Institution of Finland, Finland (Kela)
SF Statistics Finland
ETK Elåketurvakeskus (The Finnish Centre for Pensions, Finland)
TVL Accident statistics, Tapaturmavakuutuslaitosten Liitto, Finland, Annual
Norway LKU Level of living conditions survey
SSB Statistics Norway
Sweden WES The Swedish Work Environment Survey. Investigates employee perceptions every
second year.
SCB Statistics Sweden
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 59
 
Country Abbrevia- _—_‘ Explanation
tion
OWE A part of the WES. It contains questions on systematic work environment directed
towards managers, safety delegates or members of work environment committees.
QWES A part of the WES. SCB and Swedish Work Environment Authority. It contains
questions on systematic work environment directed towards safety delegates.
QOH A part of WES. SCB and Swedish Work Environment Authority.It contains questions
concerning occupational health.
MED The health and medical care register.
OAC Occupational accidents and workrelated diseases. SCB and Swedish Work Environ-
ment Authority.
LISA Refers to a longitudinal integrated database addressing labour market as well as
disease statistics.
ECQ Refers to a questionnaire that has been used annually since more than 20 years be
a big Swedish firm. A similar questionnaire is used for employee surveys in many
other big Swedish companies. This is the second most used source in the text
bellow. No linking possibilities
Denmark NAK Den Nationale Arbejdsmiljøkohorte/The National Working Environment Cohort.
Survey data collected every five years. Employees are surveyed.
VOV Overvågning af virksomhedernes forebyggende arbejdsmiljøarbejde/Surveillance of
the preventive working environment efforts of enterprises. Those responsible for
working environment and employee representatives are surveyed. Every five years.
DREAM Data collected by the Danish National Labour Market Authority.
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.2.1 Job ControlAnd Influence
Å general and important issue across the work well-being literature is to
which extend the employees have control over their own tasks. There-
fore it is important to evaluate if and how companies aim at empowering
the employees, and to what extent they give the autonomy and predicta-
bility in the work effort.
Denmark
Description: Is not covered directly in NAK or VOV. The closest we can
get is:
e Do you influence your work tasks?
NAK 2005-135; 9:
e Do you participate in the organization of your work?
NAK 2005-131 og NAK 2010-20:
e What actions have the company taken in order to increase employee
influence regarding their working condition within the last three
years?
VOV2006-41
Finland
Description:
e ESWC: Q51, DandE
WCB -Only available in Finnish.
WHS -Only available in Finnish.
60 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
Norway
Description: Level of living conditions survey - working environment
(LKU):
e To what extent are you free to decide your own tasks?
e To what extent are you free to decide how to go about doing your
work?
e Are you free to choose when to take a break from your work; e.g. to
stretch your legs or take a break in some other way?
e To what extent can you influence decisions that are important to
your work?
e To what extend can you decide the pace which your work?
Sweden
No further remarks.
Job control and influence
 
DK FI NO SE Total
Overall grade C
1. Relevance A B B B C
2. Accuracy A A A A A
2. Cross-country B
comparable
3. Availability A
across countries
3. Availability G A-C B B CE
over time
Linking A No C(linkto persons, WES:A
possibility not companies)
Source and NAK, National ESWC: European Norwegian level WES: The Swe-
ownership Research centre Survey working of living condition dish Work
for the Working Conditions survey — working Environment
Environment, VOV, WHS: Work & Health environment, SSB Survey. SCB and
National Research Survey, Finland, Swedish Work
centre for the FIOH, (Työ ja Ter- Environment
Working Environ- veys), evry 3 years Authority
ment WCB: Työolobaro-
metri (Working
Condition Barome-
ter), Finland, MOL,
annual
Accessible data? Yes Yes Yes Yes A
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 61
7.2:2 Feedback
Feedback is an important part of the psychological work environment.
Feedback from managers and management is a way for employees to
learn about and improve their performance as well as a way to get in-
formation about their job situation, future etc.
Denmark
Description: Is not covered by NAK or VOV.
Finland
Description:
e Does the management give regular and fair feedback to employees?
EWCS: Q58:A
Norway
Description: Level of living conditions survey - working environment:
e Does the management give regular and fair feedback to employees?
e Ifyou need it, how often can you get the support and help of your
immediate superior with your work?
e How well does the following description fit your immediate superior?
Your immediate superior treats employees with trust and respect?
e Do you get feedback from your superiors on how you have performed
your work?
e Does your immediate superior treat employees fairly and impartially?
e Does your immediate superior value your achievements at work?
Sweden
Description:
e Have you had a performance appraisal with your manager within the
past 12 months? ECQ
e Ifyou have had a performance appraisal with your manager within
the past 12 months
e What was the outcome of your discussion?
a) Ireceived feedback on my work performance
b) Italked about my view on the leadership of my manager
c) We discussed my development opportunities
d) I gave my manager information about how I view the organization
e) Together we formulated concrete goals regarding my
development for the 12 upcoming months
f) We always follow up the activities we agree on ECQ
62 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
F eedback
DK FI NO SE Total
Overall grade C
1. Relevance N/A B A B C
2. Accuracy N/A A A A A
2. Cross-country comparable B
3. Availability across countries B
3. Availability over time N/A C B A C
Linking possibility No No No No C
Source and ownership EWCS: European Norwegian level of living ECQ
Working Conditions condition survey — work-
Survey ing environment, SSB
Accessible data? No Yes Yes Yes B
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.2.3 Reward Systems andAcknowledgement
Across Denmark, Norway, Sweden and Finland, given an appropriate
and fair awards related to the results of the employee is stated as im-
portant. This is related to and can bea specific way of acknowledgement
of results from the management, which is also an important factor re-
garding the psychosocial work environment.
Denmark
Description: What is meant by “reward appropriately” seems rather
unclear. It is neither covered directly in NAK or VOV.
e Are your efforts on the job being acknowledged and appreciated by
the management?
NAK2005-141; 1 AND NAK2010-27; 1:
Finland
Description:
e Does the company reward the employees appropriately in accordance
with their efforts?
EWCS: Q17
Norway
Description: Level of living conditions survey - working environment:
e Does the company reward the employees appropriately in
accordance with their efforts?
e To what extent do you agree or disagree with the following statement?
My salary is appropriate to my efforts and performance at work
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 63
e To what extent do you agree or disagree with the following statement?
In relation to my efforts and performance, I get the respect and
recognition that I deserve at work.
Sweden
Description:
e Have you hada salary discussion with your manager in the last
twelve months? ECQ
Reward s y and acknowledgement
DK FI NO SW Total
Overall grade C
1. Relevance A B A B B
2. Accuracy A A A A A
2. Cross-country B
comparable
3. Availability A
across countries
3. Availability over e C B A Cc
time
Linking possibility A No No No C
Source and NAK, National Research EWCS: Europe- Norwegian level ECQ
ownership centre for the Working an Working of living condition
Environment, Conditions survey — working
VOV, National Research Survey environment, SSB
centre for the Working
Environment
Accessible data? Yes Yes Yes Yes A
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.2.44 Demands and Expectations
Demands and expectations are important factors for work well-being.
The sense of being able to deliver what is expected is closely related to
expectations regarding job security as well as hopes regarding wage and
career potential. Thus, high and unrealistic expectations regarding effort
increase uncertainty for the employee.
Denmark
Description: NAK does not contain questions regarding whether the
employee experiences demands and expectations as reasonable. The
questions about demands in NAK are generally more specific (e.g. a de-
mand for higher working pace)
64 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
Finland
Description:
e Are the demands and expectations towards the employee
reasonable?
EWCS: Q42, Q46, Q60
Norway
Description: There are several questions tapping “job demands”, but
there are no measures of whether or not the demands or expectations
are reasonable.
Quantitative demands
e How often do you have to work at a fast pace?
e How well does the following description fit your current job? ... There
is normally not time to perform tasks properly.
e How often do you have too much to do?
e Do you sometimes have so much to do that you have to miss lunch,
work longer than your normal working hours or take work home
with you?
Emotional demands
e In your work, to what extent do you need to conceal negative feelings
such as anger, irritation, frustration and so on for customers, clients
or other people who are not employed at your workplace?
e In your work, to what extent do you need to deal with strong feelings
such as sorrow, anger, desperation, frustration and so on from
customers, clients or other people who are not employed at your
workplace
Level of living conditions survey - working environment:
e Are the demands and expectations towards the employee
reasonable?
Sweden
Description:
e Is it possible for you to set your own work tempo?
WES
e Is your work sometimes so stressful that you do not have time to talk
or even think of anything other than work?
WES
e Does your work require your undivided attention and concentration?
WES
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 65
Do you sometimes have so much work to do that you have to skip
lunch, work late, or take work home with you?
WES
In your job do you ever come into contact with people who are
seriously ill or people with serious problems?
WES
How do you experience your work? Far too much to do
WES
How do you experience your work? Tasks too difficult
WES
How do you experience your work? Mentally stressful work
WES
Demands and expectations
 
DK FI NO SW Total
Overall grade C
1. Relevance N/A B B B C
2. Accuracy N/A A A A A
2. Cross-country B
comparable
3. Availability across B
countries
3. Availability over N/A C B B, WES C
time
Linking possibility No No No WES: A c
Source and owner- N/A EWCS: Euro- Norwegian level of WES: The Swedish
ship pean Working living condition Work Environment
Conditions survey — working Survey. SCB and
Survey environment, SSB Swedish Work Envi-
ronment Authority
Accessible data? No Yes Yes Yes
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.2.5 Flexible Job Descriptions
An aspect closely related to control over work tasks as well as influence
and repetitive work is whether companies have flexible job descriptions
for employees. This enables for job rotation, professional development,
influence on daily tasks, etc. (Ahonen, 2008).
Denmark
Description: Denmark is not covered directly by NAK or VOV. VOV2006
contains questions on senior employees’ policies, which also include
flexible planning of tasks and working hours.
66 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
e What have you done to increase adherence of senior employees
within the last 3 years) (11 response categories)
VOV2006-17:
Finland
Description:
e Does the work place use flexible job descriptions?
WHS: Q26B & WCB: 2 questions
Norway
e To what extent are you free to decide your own tasks?
© To what extent are you free to decide how to go about doing your work?
e Are you free to choose when to take a break from your work; e.g. to
stretch your legs or take a breather in some other way?
e To what extent can you influence decisions that are important to
your work?
e To what extend can you decide the pace which your work?
Sweden
Description:
e Is it possible for you to decide on your own when various tasks are to
be done (for example, by choosing to work a bit faster some days and
taking it easier other days)?
WES
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 67
Flexible Job Descriptions
 
DK FI NO SW Total
Overall grade C
1. Relevance B B B B c
2. Accuracy A A A A A
2. Cross- Cc
country
comparable
3. Availability B
across coun-
tries
3. Availability C B A B, WES E
over time
Linking A No No WES: A E
possibility
Source and VOV, National WHS: Work & Health Norwegian WES: The
ownership Research centre Survey, Finland, FIOH, level of living Swedish Work
for the Working (Työ ja Terveys), evry 3 condition Environment
Environment years Survey — Survey. SCB and
WCB: Työolobarometri working Swedish Work
(Working Condition environment, Environment
Barometer), Finland, SSB Authority
MOL, annual
Accessible Yes Yes No Yes B
data?
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
Swedish comment: Research job satisfaction is driven by higher in-
volvement of workers through flexible work systems that provide better
communication between workers and increased autonomy in perform-
ing the work (Bauer, 2004)
7.2.6 Social Support From Management
Social support from the management appears to be preventing decreas-
ing absence. E.g. support from management gives a senseofjob security
and helps prevent negative behavior from co-workers.
Denmark
Description:
e Do you gain help and support from you superior?
NAK2005-140; 3 og NAK 2010-24; 4
e Js your superior motivated for listening to your issues in relation to
work?
NAK2005-140: 4 og NAK 2010-24; 3
e To what extent does the management at your workplace prioritize
well-being highly?
NAK2005-137; 2:
68 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
Is there room for taking care of family and family issues at the
workplace?
NAK2005-139:
To what extent do your superior and the management provide
opportunities to the employees generely speaking (this question is
unlikely to be perceived equally relevant in all job categories)
NAK2010-26; 1
The closest superior takes into consideration our needs and views,
when he or she is making decisions.
NAK2010-28; 5:
Finland
Description:
ESWC: Q51, B and C
WCB -Only available in Finnish.
WHS -Only available in Finnish.
Norway
Description: Level of living conditions survey - working environment
(LKU):
How well do the following descriptions fit your immediate superior?
Your immediate superior treats employees with trust and respect?
Very well, Well, Not very well, Severely
Do you get feedback from your superiors on how you have performed
your work?
Does your immediate superior treat employees fairly and
impartially?
Does your immediate superior value your achievements at work?
At your workplace, if you state your opinions about working
conditions, do you feel that you get listened to?
ESWC: Q51, Band C
Sweden
Description:
Can you receive support and encouragement from your superiors
when your work becomes troublesome?
WES
If your tasks feel difficult, do you have access to advice or help?
WES
If you think you have too much to do, is it possible for you to get in
contact with your supervisor for setting of priorities?
WES
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 69
 Social Support From Management
DK FI NO SW Total
Overall Cc
grade
1. Relevance A B A B B
2. Accuracy A A A A A
2. Cross- B
country
comparable
3. Availability B
across
countries
3. Availability C A-C A B, WES C
over time
Linking A No No WES: A Cc
possibility
Source and NAK, National WCB: Tydolobarometri Norwegian WES: The
ownership Research centre (Working Condition level of living Swedish Work
for the Working Barometer), Finland, condition Environment
Environment MOL, annual survey — Survey. SCB and
VOV, National WHS: Work & Health working envi- Swedish Work
Research centre Survey, Finland, FIOH, ronment, SSB Environment
for the Working (Ty6 ja Terveys), evry 3 Authority
Environment years
EWCS: European
Working Conditions
Survey
Accessible Yes Yes No Yes B
data?
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.2.7 Problem Solving, Dialogue Oriented Collaboration
Climate
A climate of collaboration is seen as having a positive impact across the
countries. This goes for vertical as well as horizontal collaboration. At
the core of this is dialogue and a question-and-answer-oriented interac-
tion as well as the culture of challenging ideas in a constructive manner.
Establishing a well-functioning team climate is therefore important in
many ways.
Denmark
Description: VOV does not contain questions which directly include col-
laboration climate, but VOV and NAK contain a range of questions indi-
rectly covering aspects of the subject.
e lam fully aware of my areas of responsibility?
NAK2005-143; 1:
e Contradicting demands are being put into me at my work?
NAK2005-143; 2:
70 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
Do you receive important information, e.g. about central decisions,
changes and future plans in proper time?
NAK2005-136; 10 and NAK2010-25; 6:
Do you receive all relevant information in order to do a satisfactory
job?
NAK2005-136; 11 and NAK2010-25;7:
We always seek out and help each other to obtain the best possible
result at work?
NAK2010-28; 7:
We always approach each other and collaborate to find solutions to
problems.
NAK2010-28; 8:
How many meetings have been held last year where both
representative from employees and management attended, e.g. in the
organization of security, collaboration board or in other informal
forums?
VOV2006-11:
Do you discuss work well-being issues in meetings where both
employees and management are present?
VOV2006-12:
Finland
Description:
WHS: QJ24
Norway
Description:
Level of living conditions survey - working environment:
Does the workplace promote a climate of collaboration and
constructive dialogue?
If you express your point of view concerning the working conditions
at your work place, are they taken into account?
Do you risk being met with reluctance from your superiors if you
make critical comments about the working conditions at your
workplace?
Sweden
Description:
Do you spend part of your workday comprehending or solving
complex problems?
WES
Do you hesitate to present criticism of your working conditions?
WES
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 71
Problem solving, dialogue oriented collaboration climate
 
DK FI NO SW Total
Overall grade Cc
1. Relevance A B B B C
2. Accuracy A A A A A
2. Cross-country B
comparable
3. Availability A
across countries
3. Availability E B B B, WES C
over time
Linking A No No WES: A C
possibility
Source and NAK, National WHS: Work & Norwegian level WES: The Swedish
ownership Research centre Health Survey, of living condi- Work Environment
for the Working Finland, FIOH, tion survey — Survey. SCB and
Environment (Työ ja Terveys), — working envi- Swedish Work
VOV, National evry 3 years ronment, SSB Environment
Research centre Authority
for the Working
Environment
Accessible data? Yes Yes Yes Yes A
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.2.8 Social Supportfrom Colleagues
Social support from colleagues is in many studies viewed as an im-
portant aspect of the work well-being. Social support makes the employ-
ee feel included in the community, helps if the employees have either
professional or private difficulties and gives a feeling of security for the
employee.
Denmark
Description: VOV does not contain the questions about social support.
How often do you receive help and support from your colleagues?
NAK2005-140;1 and NAK2010-24;2:
How often are your colleagues willing to listen to your problems at
work?
NAK2005-140-2 and NAK2010-241;:
We always seek out and help each other to obtain the best possible
result at work?
NAK2010-28; 7:
We always approach each other and collaborate to find solutions to
problems.
NAK2010-28; 8:
Do you and your colleagues recognize each other among yourselves
NAK2010-24; 9:
72 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
Finland
Description:
e ESWC: Q51,A
WCB - Only available in Finnish.
e WHS - Only available in Finnish.
Norway
Description: There are no available data on company level. We have a
single item measuring social support in the work setting.
Level of living conditions survey — working environment:
e Which level of social support among colleagues is present in the
company?
e Ifyou need it, how often can you get the support and help of your
colleagues with your work?
Sweden
Description:
e Do you receive support and encouragement from your fellow
workers when your work becomes troublesome?
WES
e Do other persons express appreciation for your work (e.g. fellow
workers, patients, customers, clients, passengers, students)?
WES
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 73
Social Support from Colleagues
DK FI NO SW Total
 
Overall grade C
1. Relevance A B B B C
2. Accuracy A A A A A
2. Cross- A
country
comparable
3. Availability A
across
countries
3. Availability E A-C B B, WES C
over time
Linking possi- Yes No No WES: A C
bility
Source and NAK, National EWCS: European Working Norwegian WES: The
ownership Research Conditions Survey level of living Swedish Work
centre for the WHS: Work & Health Survey, condition Environment
Working Finland, FIOH, (Työ ja Ter- survey — Survey. SCB and
Environment veys), evry 3 years working Swedish Work
WCB: Tydolobarometri environment, Environment
(Working Condition Barome- SSB Authority
ter), Finland, MOL, annual
Accessible Yes Yes Yes Yes A
data?
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.2.9 Clarity ofRoles
The distribution of various tasks amongst employees and the level of
responsibility are important for the employees to experience a certain
amount of security and predictability among the working tasks. Uncer-
tainty regarding who has the final word implies a potential conflict and
thereby a bad work well-being.
Denmark
Description: VOV does not contain questions on clarity of roles.
e lam fully aware of my areas of responsibility
NAK2005-143; 1:
e Contradicting demands are been put forward to me at work
NAK2005-143; 2:
Finland
Description:
WHS: QJ24b
EWCS: Q51K
74 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
Norway
Description:
Level of living conditions survey — working environment:
e Isitobvious who has the responsibility for different tasks and who
has different roles?
e How often is it unclear what is expected of you in your job?
Sweden
Description:
e lam familiar with the overall company goals
e I have clearly defined goals
e Myindividual goals are followed up
e Inmy work group our goals are regularly followed up
e I understand what our valuess mean in my everyday work
ECQ
 
DK FI NO SW Total
Overall grade C
1. Relevance B B B B C
2. Accuracy A A A A A
2. Cross- Cc
country
comparable
3. Availability B
across
countries
3. Availability C B A B, WES C
over time
Linking A No No WES: Å C
possibility
Source and VOV, National WHS: Work & Health Norwegian level WES: The Swe-
ownership Research centre Survey, Finland, FIOH, of living condi- dish Work
for the Working (Työ ja Terveys), evry tion survey — Environment
Environment 3 years working envi- Survey. SCB and
WCB: Tydolobaro- ronment, SSB Swedish Work
metri (Working Environment
Condition Barometer), Authority
Finland, MOL, annual
Accessible Yes Yes No Yes B
data?
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
DAMVAD comment regarding Swedish data: If the ECQ questionnaire is
not linkable to companies, we propose to skip the data. It will not be
useable for productivity analysis.
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 75
7.2.10 Work Scheduling
WE can to a large degree be defined by the way the work is scheduled
and the amount of work expected by the employer. This is a subject that
includes many sub-themes. One theme is how the work is scheduled
with regards to working hours, daytime/nighttime and the opportuni-
ties to get reasonable rest. Does the employer expect that the employees
work many hours each day, it can be stressing and even though it can
improve the production volume in the short run, it can also undermine
the effort in the longer run as long as employees are stressed, run-down
etc. Furthermore, if the work is scheduled to hours making it difficult for
the employees to have a well-functioning work/life balance, it can in the
longer run cause absenteeism, high employee turnover etc.
Another aspect is whether the working hours are changing or more
or less fixed. Changing working hours, e.g. as part of shift work, imposes
a stress to the human organism in terms of difficulties regarding having
a circadian and biological rhythm.
Denmark
Description: VOV does not contain questions on the planning of working
hours.
e Howis your time at work normally planned?
NAK2005-100:
e At what time a day do you normally work?
NAK2010-6:
e Do you actively plan your work and work load?
NAK2010-20:
e Is your job varied?
NAK2010-21:
e Does your job requirea lot of repetition and repeats several times an
hour?
NAK2010-22:
e How often is your work unevenly distributed so that it accumulates?
NAK2010-23; 1:
e How often do you not complete all of your tasks?
NAK2010-23; 2:
e How often is it necessary to do overtime?
NAK2010-23; 3:
Finland
Description:
e Is the work organized and scheduled in an appropriate way?
WHS: B26
76 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
Norway
Description:
There is no data on whether the work is organized and scheduled in
an appropriate way. However, there is available data on working hours
and shift work, including night work:
What are your agreed weekly working hours in your main job?[1-31
hours, 32-36 hours]
How many hours do you normally work in total per week in your
main job? Include paid overtime and extra work done at home
related to this job.
Is this a full-time or part-time job?
You have said that you normally work longer than your agreed
working hours. Is any of the overtime that you do paid, or are you
able to take time off in lieu?[Yes/no]
What are your normal working hours? [Daytime between 6 am and 6
pm, Shift or rota work, Other arrangement]
Can you estimate how many nights you worked? (last 12 months)
How many nights in a row have you worked over the past 12 weeks?
Sweden
Description:
Is there any part of your work day when you do nothing but wait and
remain prepared in case something might happen?
WES
In the mains can you take short breaks at any time in order to talk?
WES
Does your work occasionally require you to perform nothing but
repetitive tasks several times per hour?
WES
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 77
WorkSscheduling
 
DK FI NO SW Total
Overall grade Cc
1. Relevance A B B B Cc
2. Accuracy A A A A A
2. Cross-country B
comparable
3. Availability A
across countries
3. Availability C B B B, WES c
over time
Linking A No No WES: A C
possibility
Source and NAK, National WHS: Work & — Norwegian level of | WES: The Swedish
ownership Research centre Health living condition Work Environment
for the Working Survey, survey — working Survey. SCB and
Environment Finland, FIOH, environment, SSB Swedish Work
(Työ ja The labour force Environment
Terveys), evry survey, SSB Authority
3 years
Accessible data? Yes Yes Yes Yes A
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
Norway: Description of relevance, is it a direct measure or indirect
measure of the indicator?
DAMVAD comment to Norwegian data: This is an indirect measure-
ment stating something about the ability to control the work situation.
7.2.11 Working Communities/ Group Work
Working communities imply that the individual employee is not neces-
sarily responsible for the total delivery in the project. Furthermore, or-
ganizing in working communities also ensures social support from col-
leagues as well as distributing workloads among several employees.
Denmark
Description: Is not covered by neither NAK nor VOV.
Finland
EWCS: Q56
WHS:
Norway
No data
78 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
Sweden
Description:
e How do you experience your work? Too little support and help from
fellow workers and superiors?
WES
e How do you experience your work? Too isolated from others?
WES
Working Communities/Group Work
 
DK FI NO SW Total
Overall grade E
1. Relevance N/A B N/A B C
2. Accuracy N/A A N/A A E
2. Cross-country compa- E
rable
3. Availability across C
countries
3. Availability over time N/A B,C N/A B, WES C
Linking possibility N/A No N/A WES: A C
Source and ownership EWCS: Europe- WES: The Swedish
an Working Work Environment
Conditions Survey. SCB and
Survey Swedish Work
WHS: Work & Environment
Health Survey, Authority
Finland, FIOH,
(Työ ja Ter-
veys), evry 3
years
Accessible data? No Yes No Yes c
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.2.1.2 Norway - General Comment on the Following
Indicators.
There are no specific national data addressing the following indicators.
In the level of living conditions there are some general questions ad-
dressing OSH-resources at company level.
e Does your company have a safety representative, i.e. someone who
raises issues relating to the working environment on behalf of
employees?[YES/NO]
e Does your company have a working environment committee or other
committees that deal with issues relating to the working
environment?[YES/NO]
e Does your employer have a company health service? [Yes/no]
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 79
e Have you had any contact with anyone who works at the company
health service over the past 12 months?
EU-OSHA’s European survey of enterprises on new and emerging risks
(ESENER) could provide more detailed data on how health and safety
risks are managed at their workplace. The ESENER survey explores the
views of managers and workers’ representatives. LINK: http://osha.
europa.eu/sub/esener/en
ESENER are also providing data for all the four Nordic countries on
the exact same questions.
7.2.13 Sweden - General Comment on the Following
Indicators.
In Sweden there is a legal obligation on systematic work environment
management. Amongst other things it involves that the employer regu-
larly investigates work conditions and assesses risks for illness and ac-
cidents at work and that the employer implements actions required for
prevention of poor health conditions and accidents as soon as possible.
In addition there is a legal obligation to have a work environment
committee.
7.2.14 Evaluation Tools
In order for a company to work strategically with work well-being it can
be necessary to assess the actual work well-being in the company. Using
tools in order to assess oneself, enable companies to find out where im-
provement is needed. Furthermore, it can form the basis of a dialogue
and a process for improving the work well-being.
e Does the company evaluate the work well-being?
Denmark
Description: The statutory tool is APV (arbejdspladsvurdering=work
place assessment), which should be undertaken for the physical as well
as the psychological working environment. The organizing of the com-
pany’s efforts for improvement of the working environment is defined in
regulations on the safety and collaboration organization. Health promo-
tion in the work place is not statutory, yet is offered by many companies:
e Within the past three years, has there been a work place assessment
(APV/WPA) in your current work place?
NAK2005-104
e Do you have a safety organization/safety representative in your work
place?
NAK2005-103
80 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
e Within the past year, have you been offered health promotion via
your work place? - and have you made use of the offer? (6 response
categories=types of health promotion)
NAK2010-9
e Have you madea formal work place assessment, also known as
APV/WPA, in your work place?
VOV2006-4
e When is the last time you have done an AOV at your work place?
VOV2006-5
e Was the last APV/WPA that you did written?
VOV2006-6
e Within the past three years, have you been going through the
working environment in your work place, e.g. when doing an
APV/WPA, focusing on [industrial injuries], [psychological working
environment], [ergonomic problems], [indoor climate], [noise],
[chemicals, gasses, smoke, dust or wet work]?
VOV2006-7
e Within the past three years, e.g. when doing an APV/WPA, have you
noticed any problems with the working environment at the work
place?
VOV2006-8
e Has the character, seriousness and extend of these problems been
assessed?
VOV2006-9
e Hasa written plan of action for how to solve the problems been
made?
VOV2006-10
Finland
SWBS: questions about work climate survey and HR-reporting
WHS: QL12-1 (HR-reporting)
Norway
ESENER, Management
e What health and safety services do you use, be it in-house or
contracted externally?
e Does your establishment routinely analyse the cause of sickness
absence?
e Do you take measures to support employees’ return to work
following a long term sickness absence?
e Is the health of employees monitored through regular medical
examinations?
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 81
Sweden
Are systematic work environment activities currently ongoing at
your work place?
WES
Are deficiencies in the work environment taken care of within
reasonable time?
WES
Has there been a survey of the work environment with an assessment
of the risks for poor health and accidents found at your workplace?
QWE
Have the results of this work been documented in writing?
QWE
Have those risks noted in the survey of the work environment been
taken care of?
QWE
If one or more risks were not taken care of directly, is there a plan
that describes when these risks would be taken care of, naming the
person who is responsible for handling the matter?
QWE
Does your employer provide occupational health services?
QOH
Has anyone from occupational health services been at your
workplace during the last 12 months? For example, to assess possible
risks at the workplace and suggest solutions if necessary?
QOH
Have occupational health services made an assessment of your work
situation in any other ways? For example, in connection with your
visit to occupational health services or by telephone?
QOH
Which of the following areas were involved?
QOH
a) Working postures, work movements, or heavy work
b) Heavy workload or stress
c) Cooperation or relations at the workplace
d) Adjustment of working duties or rehabilitation
e) Technical equipment, i.e. machines, lighting, noise
f) Sickness absence
g) Problems with substance misuse, i. e. alcohol, narcotics
h) Organization of work
82 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
Evaluation Tools
 
DK FI NO SW Total
Overall grade C
1. Relevance A B B B C
2. Accuracy A A A A A
2. Cross-country comparable B
3. Availability across countries B
3. Availability over time B SWBS: A A B B
WHS: B
Linking possibility A Cc NO Yes Cc
Source and ownership NAK SWBS LKU WES
vov WHS QWE
Both NFA QOH
Accessible data? A
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.2.15 Personnel Policy
Personnel policy can be a strategic framework for defining work well-
being practice in the company in order to make sure that there is a
common way to work with working environment.
e Does the company have a personnel policy regarding work well-
being?
Denmark
Description: VOV contains questions on senior employees’ policies
(VOV2006-16 and VOV2006-17). The subject is only covered indirectly
and sporadically in NAK.
e Does your working place create space for employees with different
disabilities and handicaps?
NAK2005-138:
Does your working place give you an option for taking care of your fami-
ly when needed?
NAK2005-139
Finland
SWBS
Norway
No data
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 83
Sweden
RESEARCH Quality of personnel policy relates to productivity and prof-
itability in firms (Ulrich, 1997; Tamkin et al, 2004; Pfau & kay, 2002)
Personnel policy
 
DK FI NO SE Total
Overall grade C
1. Relevance B B C
2. Accuracy A A - - B
2. Cross-country comparable
3. Availability across countries C
3. Availability over time GC A - - C
Linking possibility Yes No - - C
Source and ownership NAK, NFA SWBS
Accessible data? A Gc
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.2.16 Work Well-Being Programs and Plans
A strategic way to promote better work well-being is by using a work
well-being plan or by establishing a program to promote work well-
being. Having identified focus areas or crucial challenges to address ei-
ther beforehand or as a reaction of an identified problem implies that
there is a possibility to address the issues.
e Does the company have a work environment program or work well-
being plan in order to promote work well-being? Work well-being
plans could relate to different issues such as:
e Bullying
e Physically hard work
e Work accidents
e Chemicals and other dangerous materials
e Sedentary work
Denmark
Description: VOV has a range of questions regarding actions and plans
which on a company level aim at preventing problems with the working
environment related to:
e Industrial injuries VOV2006-18, VOV2006-19, VOV2006-21,
VOV2006-23, VOV2006-24, VOV2006-26, VOV2006-28, VOV2006-30
e Psychological working environment VOV2006-37, VOV2006-40,
VOV2006-41, VOV2006-42, VOV2006-44, VOV2006-45
e Physically straining work VOV2006-47, VOV2006-49, VOV2006-51,
VOV2006-52, VOV2006-54 (fysisk krævende arbejde), VOV2006-56
(sedentary work)
e Indoor climate VOV2006-59, VOV2006-60, VOV2006-62
e Noise VOV2006-64, VOV2006-66, VOV2006-68, VOV2006-70,
V0V2006-74, VOV2006-76
84 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
e Chemicals VOV2006-79
NAK does not have questions which elucidate whether the company has
programs/plans with the purpose of preventing negative effects of dif-
ferent working environment influences. By contrast, NAK has questions
on the employees’ experiences of being under the different working
environment influences - typically as a share of the working time.
Finland
SWBS
Norway
No data
Sweden
RESEARCH High levels of stress, excessive body weight, and multiple
risk factors (individuals scoring high on several sickness-related factors)
are associated with increased healthcare costs and illness-related absen-
teeism (Aldana, 2001)
Work Well-Being Programs and Plans
DK FI NO SW Total
 
Overall grade E
1. Relevance A B E
2. Accuracy A A - - B
2. Cross-country comparable
3. Availability across countries
3. Availability over time Cc A - - Ec
Linking possibility Yes No
Source and ownership VOV, NFA SWBS
Accessible data? A
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.2.17 Work Well-Being or Safety Organisation
A specific organizational unit handling work well-being questions is seen as
a way to professionalize work well-being issues. It ensures that work well-
being is on the agenda from time to time and it ensures that there is a forum
in which to handle issues regarding work well-being on a regular basis.
e Does the work place have an organizational unit which handles work
well-being issues?
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 85
Denmark
e How is the working environment organized?
VOV2006-3
e Doesa safety organization or safety representative exist in your work
place?
NAK2005-103
Finland
SWBS
Norway
LKU
e Does your company have a working environment committee or other
committees that deal with issues relating to the working
environment?
Sweden
e As safety delegate, do you participate in the systematic work
environment work at your workplace?
QWES
The question was originally used to measure employee attitudes but the
content of the question could nevertheless be used as indicator for com-
pany practise. The latter indicator may not provide an extensive defini-
tion of the above overall indicator but it could serve as proxy and be
combined with other aspects.
Work Well-Being or Safety Organisation
 
DK Fl NO SW Total
Overall grade C
1. Relevance A B B B C
2. Accuracy A A A A A
2. Cross-country comparable B
3. Availability across B
countries
3. Availability over time E A -A B B
Linking possibility Yes No -NO Yes ic
Source and ownership NAK SWBS - Norwegian level of QWES
VOV, living condition survey —
Both NFA working environment,
SSB
Accessible data? A
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
86 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
7.2.18 Certification in Work Well-Being
A certification can help systematizing the work with work well-being as
well as documenting the effects. Furthermore certification often implies
that companies must spend more resources in their work environment
effort as well as it helps the company prove that the company works
seriously with work well-being.
e Is the company certified in handling the work well-being (in one way
or another)?
Denmark
Description: NAK and VOV do not contain questions on cerfification in
work well being. Certified companies are registered at AT’s (The Danish
Working Environment Authority) homepage.
Finland
SWBS
Norway
No data available.
Sweden
Legal obligation of employers to measure.
Certification in Work Well-Being
DK FI NO SW Total
 
Overall grade
1. Relevance - B E >
2. Accuracy - A
2. Cross-country comparable
3. Availability across countries
3. Availability over time - A
Linking possibility - No
Source and ownership - SWBS -
Accessible data?
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.2.19 General Training and Competence Development
An important factor for employees is whether they have opportunities to
develop their skills within their job. Education and training gives the
employees better possibilities to keep their job, perform better and thus
improve economic outputs in the company.
e Does the company provide training and education for their
employees?
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 87
Denmark
Description: VOV does not contain questions, which directly answer
whether the companies have policies regarding general job training and
competence development.
However, they can be answered indirectly by:
What have you done to increase the employees’ development
possibilities within the past three years?
VOV2006-40
Within the past 12 months whilst working at your current work
place, have you participated in courses or supplementary training (6
response categories with increasing duration)
NAK2005-105
To which extend have you had the possibility to learn something new
through your work place?
NAK2010-25; 2
Finland
SWBS
WCB
Norway
LKU
In your job, how good are your opportunities to develop your skills in
the areas that interests you?
In your job, how good are your opportunitites to make use of the
skills, knowledge, and experience that you have gained through your
education and past work.
How often does your job require you to acquire new knowledge and
skills?
Sweden
No data
88 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
 General Training and Competence Development
DK Fl NO SW Total
Overall grade Cc
1. Relevance A B A Cc
2. Accuracy A A A B
2. Cross-country comparable
3. Availability across countries c
3. Availability over time C A A C
Linking possibility Yes No NO E
Source and ownership VOV, NAK, SWBS Norwegian level of living
both NFA WCB condition survey — working
environment, SSB
Accessible data? A
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.2.20 Regular Evaluation of Training Needs and Wishes
In order to find out if employees have the appropriate skills and there-
fore are able to perform their job with satisfaction and have a future in
the organization, the company can make a more regular evaluation of
the needs. It gives the opportunity to ensure that employees are and feel
valuable for the work place.
e Does the company in a systemized manner evaluate the need for
training for individual employees?
Denmark
Description: Is not covered in VOV and NAK
Finland
SWBS
Norway
No data available.
Sweden
No data
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 89
Regular evaluation of training needs and wishes
 
DK FI NO sw Total
Overall grade
1. Relevance - B - -
2. Accuracy - A - -
2. Cross-country comparable
3. Availability across countries
3. Availability over time - A - -
Linking possibility - No - -
Source and ownership - SWBS - -
Accessible data? =
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.2.21 Training in Work Well-Being
The purpose with work well-being training is to strengthen the work
well-being efforts in companies.
e Does the company or any of the employees in the company
participate in training activities aimed at improving their work well-
being skills?
Denmark
Description: Is not covered in VOV and NAK
Finland
SWBS
Norway
No data available.
Sweden
No data
Training in work well-being
DK FI NO sw Total
 
Overall grade
1. Relevance - B - =
2. Accuracy - A - -
2. Cross-country comparable
3. Availability across countries
3. Availability over time - A - -
Linking possibility - No - -
Source and ownership - SWBS - -
Accessible data? -
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
90 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
7.2.22 Countering Repetitive Work andHard Physical Work
It is relevant to consider how companies work to reduce the repetitive
work as well as hard physical work, (Arbejdstilsynet 2010), (Alexander-
sonK et.a. 2004), because it is expected to correlate with sickness and
physical attrition of the employees in the longer run.
e Does the work place have actions to lower the degree of repetitive
work and hard physical work as much as possible?
Denmark
Physically straining work VOV2006-47,VOV2006-49, VOV2006-51,
VOV2006-52, VOV2006-54 (physically demanding work), VOV2006-56
(sedentary work)
NAK does not have questions, which elucidate whether the company
is actively seeking to reduce repetitive work and physically heavy work
to the furthest possible extend. However, NAK has questions on the em-
ployees’ experiences of being exposed to repetitive and physically hard
work - typically as a share of the working time.
Finland
No data
Norway
No data available.
Sweden
Legal obligation of employers to measure.
Countering Repetitive Work and Hard Physical Work
DK Fl NO SW Total
 
Overall grade
1. Relevance A
2. Accuracy A
2. Cross-country comparable
3. Availability across countries
3. Availability over time Cc
Linking possibility Yes
Source and ownership VOV, NFA
Accessible data? A
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.2:23 Ergonomics and Design
The physical aspect of a working environment is important also in
workplaces that are not affected by hard physical labor or other physical
risks. Some workplaces work deliberately to improve the ergonomic
conditions for their employees — some as a preventive measure and oth-
ers as a reaction to complaints.
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 91
e Does the company work to improve the ergonomic conditions in
performing work tasks and/or to develop products with an
ergonomic design in order to strengthen work well-being?
Denmark
Description: Is not covered by NAK. Partially covered by VOV as ergo-
nomic initiatives and design are part of the response categories as well
as the questions on physically straining work VOV2006-47,VOV2006-49,
VOV2006-51, VOV2006-52, VOV2006-54 (physically demanding work),
VOV2006-56 (sedentary work)
Finland
No data
Norway
No data
Sweden
Legal obligation of employers to measure.
 Ergonomics and Design
DK FI NO SW Total
Overall grade
1. Relevance A - - -
2. Accuracy B - -
2. Cross-country comparable
3. Availability across countries
3. Availability over time Cc -
Linking possibility Yes -
Source and ownership VOV, NFA -
Accessible data? A
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.2.24 Specific Action Plans andAction Concerning Noise,
Chemicals, Indoor Climate etc.
To avoid problems related to physical issues affecting the health and
well-being of the employees, companies can take measures to avoid
causing physical risks at their employees. This could be by introducing
security equipment, training of employees, maintenance and invest-
ments in physical facilities etc.
e Does the company have specific measures concerning improvement
of the physical surroundings and work well-being? E.g.:
e Noise
e Chemicals
e Indoor climate
e Others?
92 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
Denmark
Description: Is not covered in NAK. VOV has a range of questions.
Noise VOV2006-64, VOV2006-66, VOV2006-68, VOV2006-70, VOV2006-
74, VOV2006-76
Chemicals VOV2006-79
Indoor climate VOV2006-59, VOV2006-60, VOV2006-62
Finland
No data
Norway
No data
Sweden
Legal obligation of employers to measure.
Specific action plans and action concerning noise, chemicals, indoor climate etc.
 
DK FI NO Sw Total
Overall grade
1. Relevance A
2. Accuracy A
2. Cross-country comparable
3. Availability across countries
3. Availability over time C
Linking possibility Yes
Source and ownership VOV, NFA
Accessible data? A
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.2.25 Preventive Actions Regarding WorkAccidents
e In 2010 there were 44,381 work accidents in Denmark. 166 caused
amputations and 39 were fatal (www.at.dk). This off course has major
implications for the health among employers as well as costs related to
the accidents. There are several ways companies can try to avoid work
accidents. This can relate to routine security reviews of the workplace or
implementation of action plans but can also relate to investments in
security equipment as well as maintenance, training etc.Does the
company take preventive actions regarding avoiding work accidents?
Denmark
VOV2006-18, VOV2006-19, VOV2006-21, VOV2006-23, VOV2006-24,
VOV2006-26, VOV2006-28, VOV2006-30
NAK-2005 has a range of questions on whether the employee has had
an industrial injury. Relating to the company’s preventitive measures,
the indirect goals are as follows:
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 93
e Have you recieved information on how your work can be done ina
safe way?
NAK2005-122:?
NAK-2010 has four questions on safety culture:
e The management is encouraging the employees to participate in
decisions which affect their safety.
NAK2010-12; 1:
e We who work here help each other to work in a safe way
NAK2010-12; 2
e We whowork here feel that minor accidents are part of our daily work
NAK2010-12; 3
e The management accepts that the employees run risks when the
working schedule is tight.
NAK2005-123; 1 og NAK2010-12; 4
e The management does not care whether work is done in a secure
manner as long as it is done on time.
NAK2005-123; 2
Finland
WCB
Norway
No data.
Sweden
Legal obligation of employers to measure.
Preventive Actions Regarding Work Accidents
 
DK FI NO SW Total
Overall grade Cc
1. Relevance A B C
2. Accuracy A A - - B
2. Cross-country comparable
3. Availability across countries
3. Availability over time C A - - C
Linking possibility Yes No - - C
Source and ownership VOV, NAK, both NFA WCB
Accessible data? A
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.2.26 Physical Exercise
Å central aspect of general and physical well-being is the general health
conditions which also influences the well-being at the work place as well
as the general well-being and performance of the employee.
e Physical exercise has initially been a central aspect of promoting work
environment because it is documented to bring positive physical effects
94 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
and also increases mental resources (Ahonen, Hussi 2007). Does the
work place in any way support the physical well-being of the employee
in terms of giving access to or performing physical exercise in relation to
the work place?
Denmark
Description: Is not covered in VOV
e Within the past year, have you been offered health promotion via
your workplace? And have you used these offers? Response category
3 - exercise facilities; response category 4 - weekly exercise offers.
Finland
SWBS
Norway
No data.
Sweden
No data
Physical exercise
DK FI NO SW Total
 
Overall grade E
1. Relevance A B - E
2. Accuracy A A - - B
2. Cross-country comparable
3. Availability across countries
3. Availability over time E A = - c
Linking possibility Yes No = ES Cc
Source and ownership NAK, NFA SWBS - -
Accessible data? A
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.2.27 Health Checks
An aspect of health promotion policies in workplaces refers to a general
health promotion policy, and it is now common to give the employees
access to health checks. This is expected to promote workability as well
as promoting loyalty towards the work place as long as it in reality is
voluntary.
e Does the workplace provide health checks for the employees?
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 95
Denmark
Description: Is not covered in VOV
e Within the past year, have you been offered health promotion via
your workplace? And have you used these offers? Response category
6 - health check
Finland
SWBS
Norway
LKU
e Does your employer have a company health service?
Sweden
No data
 Health Checks
DK FI NO SW Total
Overall grade C
1. Relevance A B Cc = C
2. Accuracy A A Cc = C
2. Cross-country comparable
3. Availability across countries
3. Availability over time Cc A A - C
Linking possibility Yes No NO - C
Source and ownership NAK, NFA SWBS Norwegian level of living -
condition survey — work-
ing environment, SSB
Accessible data? A
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.2.28 Rehabilitation Courses, Medical Treatment,
Intoxicant Programs etc.
In recent years the importance of health promotion programs directed
towards employees has increased. This is part of a proactive taking care
of the health of the employees which is expected to yield positive returns
for the companies due to lower absenteeism and higher productivity
among employees as well as promoting the health of the employees.
e Does the work place offer health promotion activities to the
employees including medical care?
Denmark
Description: Is not covered in VOV
96 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
e Within the past year, have you been offered health promotion via
your workplace? And have you used these offers? Response category
5 - treatment scheme (physiotherapy, psychologist and the like).
NAK2010-9:
Finland
SWBS
WHS: QL21
Norway
No data
Sweden
No data
Rehabilitation courses, medical treatment, intoxicant programs etc.
 
DK Fl NO SW Total
Overall grade C
1. Relevance A B - - C
2. Accuracy A A - - B
2. Cross-country comparable
3. Availability across countries
3. Availability over time E SWBS: A - = C
WHS: B
Linking possibility Yes No = - Cc
Source and ownership NAK, NFA SWBS
WHS
Accessible data? A
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.3 Indicators Regarding Physical Conditions and
Exposures
7.3.1 Light
There is a known relationship between ranges of illnesses and working
late hours - this relationship is sometimes hypothesised to be caused by
the lack of sunlight. Further, too little light can imply risks of working ac-
cidents. The lack of light or too much light as well as the use of computers
and screens can be stressing and imply difficult working conditions.
e Does the light give you optimal working conditions?
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 97
Denmark
e Do you have problems with the light on your workplace? VOV2006-61
e Are you exposed to poor lighting? (to weak or to blinding) NAK2005-
112;8
Finland
WHS: QH10
Norway
Description: The living condition survey (population sample) has several
questions regarding self-reported work-related health problems. The
data can be aggregated for occupational groups, industries or sectors.
Questions:
e Are you, in your day-to-day work, exposed to poor or blinding light or
irritating reflections?
Sweden
Description: The question is originally used for measuring employee
attitudes but the content of the question could nevertheless be used as
indicator for company practise. The latter indicator may not provide an
extensive definition of the above overall indicator but it could serve as
proxy and be combined with other aspects.
Questions:
e Are you exposed to poor lighting (too weak or glaring). WES
 Light
DK FI NO SW Total
Overall grade B
1. Relevance A B B B B
2. Accuracy A A A A A
2. Cross-country A
comparable
3. Availability B
across countries
3. Availability over time B B B C
Linking possibility A No B(Only to A B
persons)
Source and ownership VOV/NAK WHS Norwegian Living WES
National research Survey, Statictics
centre for the work- Norway
ing environment
Accessible data yes Yes Yes Yes A
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
98 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
7.3.2 Noise
Noise can imply unpleasant working conditions as well as be damaging
to the hearing capabilities of the employees. Too high a level of noise can
cause hearing problems, tinnitus etc.
What is the level of noise in the workplace?
Denmark
Questions:
e Doyou experience annoying noises in rooms where there are many
people at the same time (e.g. workshops, factoryfloors, large open
office areas, institutions etc.)?
VOV2006-65
e Doyou expirience noise from ventilation, computer equipment, other
peoples phonecalls etc. Atyour work place?
VOV2006-67
e Areyou exposed to noise comingfrom outsideyour work place (e.g.
from the street, traffic or noisefrom other rooms?
VOV2006-69
e Are any employees exposed to hearing damaging noise (over 80dB(A) -
which makes it necessary to significantly increase ones voice)from e.g.
machines, working processes and tools in your workplace?
VOV2006-72
e Are any employees exposed to hearing damagingnoisefrom machines
in your workplace? |
VOV2006-73
e Are any employees working with noisy hand tools in your workplace
(e.g. angle grinder, drilling hammer, circular saw, compressed air tools,
welding, etc.)?
VOV2006-72
e Have you been exposed to noise so loud thatyou had to raise your voice
to communicate?
NAK 2005-112; 1
e Areyou exposed to noise so loud thatyou havetoyell in order to
communicate with a person standing right next toyou?
NAK 2005-112; 2 og NAK2010-10;1
Finland
WHS: GH1, H1T
EWCS: Q23B
Norway
Questions:
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 99
e Are you, in your day-to-day work, exposed to noise so loud thatyou
have to stand next to someone and shout in order to be heard?
Sweden
Description: The question is originally used for measuring employee
attitudes but the content of the question could nevertheless be used as
indicator for company practice. The latter indicator may not provide an
extensive definition of the above overall indicator but it could serve as
proxy and be combined with other aspects
Questions:
e Are you exposed to noise that is so loud that you cannot converse ina
normal tone of voice? (WES)
 Noise
DK FI NO SW Total
Overall grade B
1. Relevance A B A B B
2. Accuracy A A A A A
2. Cross-country A
comparable
3. Availability across B
countries
3. Availability over B B,C B C
time
Linking possibility A No B(Only to A B
persons)
Source and owner- VOV/NAK WHS/EWCS Norwegian WES
ship National research Living Survey,
centre for the Statictics Nor-
working environ- way
ment
Accessible data Yes Yes Yes Yes A
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.3.3 Temperature
High and low working temperatures imply that employees can have diffi-
culties regarding the general health state among the employees. Further-
more, it can cause a bad working climate in terms of unpleasant working
conditions with too high, too low or changing working temperature.
e Js the temperature at the work place high, low or shifting?
100 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
Denmark
Questions:
e Whathave you done to avoid problems with heat, cold or draft in the
workplace within the past threeyears?
Vov2006-59
e Areyou exposed to heat which makesyou sluggish or sleepy?
NAK 2005-112; 6
Finland
WHS: QH9A,B
EWCS: Q23C-D
Norway
Questions:
e Are you, in your day-to-day work, exposed to heat, i.e. temperatures of
approx. 28 degrees Celsius or higher?
e Areyou, in your day-to-day work, exposed to cold, i.e. working outdoors
in the winter, or working in cold rooms, etc.?
Sweden
The question was originally used for measuring employee attitudes but
the content of the question could nevertheless be used as an indicator
for company practice. The latter indicator may not provide an extensive
definition of the above overall indicator but it could serve as a proxy and
be combined with other aspects.
Questions:
WES Cold (outdoor work in winter, work in chilled room or the like).
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 101
Temperature
 
DK Fl NO SE Total
Overall grade B
1. Relevance B B A B C
2. Accuracy A A A A A
2. Cross-country
comparable
3. Availability across
countries
3. Availability over B B,C B B B
time
Linking possibility A No B (only to A B
persons)
Source and owner- VOV/NAK WHS/EWCS Norwegian WES
ship National research Living Survey,
centre for the Statistics Nor-
working environ- way
ment
Accessible data Yes Yes Yes Yes A
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.3.4 High amount ofRepetition ofMotion
Repetition of motion can take many forms. One well-known example is
that of the work carried out in large butcheries. Another example may be
that of secretaries or other people typing on computers for many hours.
A high amount of repetition in motion implies that employees risk phys-
ical attrition.
e Does the work imply that the employees are exposed to a high
amount of repetition in motion?
Denmark
Questions:
e Are there employees who do repeated work in your workplace? (e.g.
computer work, packing or longer sessions ofgrinding or polishing?
VOV2006-50
e How large is the part ofyour total working hours whereyou work in
front ofacomputer?
NAK2005-109
e How large is the part ofyour total working hours where you work with
a computer mouse?
NAK2005-110
e How many hours per weekdo you spend using a computer?
NAK2010-8
e Does your work entail doing the samefinger movements many times
per minute (e.g. keyboard typing work)
102 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
e Doesyour work entail doing the same arm movements many times per
minute? (e.g. packing, mounting, cutting)
NAK2005-124; 9 og NAK2010-14; 7
Finland
WHS: QF10
EWCS: Q24E
Norway
Questions:
e Doesyour work involve repeated movements with just one ofyour
hands or arms?
Sweden
The questions are originally used for measuring employee attitudes but
the content of the questions could nevertheless be used as indicators for
company practise. The latter indicators may not provide an extensive
definition of the above overall indicator but it could serve as proxies and
be combined with other aspects.
Questions:
e Doesyour work requireyou to perform only repetitive work movements
at least twice every minute?
WES
e Do you sometimes work ina sitting position? For how long without
interruption?
WES
Repetition of Motion
 
DK FI NO SE Total
Overall grade B
1. Relevance A B B B C
2. Accuracy A A A A A
2. Cross-country comparable A
3. Availability across countries
3. Availability over time B B,C B B C
Linking possibility A No B(only to persons) A B
Source and ownership VOV/NAK WHS, EWCS Norwegian Living WES
National re- Survey, Statistics
search centre for Norway
the working
environment
Accessible data Yes Yes Yes Yes A
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 103
7.3.5 Work Involves Simultaneous Lifting and Suboptimal
Movement/Positioning
Between 40 and 60 per cent of the Norwegian working population with
musculoskeletal complaints report that these wholly or partly are relat-
ed to their job, but there are major differences between occupational
groups.
e Does the work imply that the employees are exposed to a high
amount of repetition in motion?
Denmark
Questions:
e Are any employees performing heavy lifts in the workplace?
VOV2006-48
e Are any employees doing physically demanding work in your
workplace?
VOV2006-53
e Doesyour work entail working withyour back severely stooping
without supporting with your hands and arms?
NAK2005-124; 3 og NAK2010-14; 3
e Does your work entail thatyou twist and bend your back several times
per hour?
NAK2005-124; 4 og NAK2010-14; 4
e Doesyour work entail having your arms lifted in or above shoulder
level?
NAK2005-124; 5 og NAK2010-14; 5
e Doesyour work entailyou working with your neck severely stooping?
NAK2005-124; 6
e Ofyour total working time, how muchdo you spend pushing and
pulling?
NAK2005-129 og NAK2010-14; 9
e Ofyour total working time, how much timedo you spend carrying or
lifting?
NAK2005-127 og NAK2010-14; 10
© What does what you carry or lift usually weigh?
NAK2005-128 og NAK2010-15
e How is pushing and pulling typically perceived?
NAK2005-130
Finland
WHS: QF3b, F6
EWCS: Q24A,C
104 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
Norway
Questions:
e Doyou work in those positions with your back twisted?[Yes/no]
e When working in those positions, do you need to lift anything that
weighs more than 10 kg /20 kg?
Sweden
The questions are originally used for measuring employee attitudes but
the content of the questions could nevertheless be used as indicators for
company practice. The latter indicators may not provide an extensive
definition of the above overall indicator but it could serve as proxies and
be combined with other aspects
Questions:
e Doyou sometimes work bendingforward without supporting yourself
with your hands or arms?
WES
e Doyou sometimes work in a twisted posture?
WES
e Doyou sometimes work with your hands raised to the level ofyour
shoulders or higher?
WES
e Doyou use a carat work? How many working hours are spent in the
car?
WES
e Doyou work with oneof thefollowing machines or equipment at least
one fourth ofyour working time?
WES
a) Hand-held machines or machines that can be pushed or pulled
along
b) Movable machines such as those that can be sit in and driven -
but not buses or cars
c) Stationary machines or process systems for manufacturing,
processing, transport or packaging
e Doyou have to lift at least 15 kgs several times a day?
WES
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 105
Simultaneous Lifting and Suboptimal Movement/Positioning
 
DK Fl NO SE Total
Overall grade B
1. Relevance A B A B B
2. Accuracy B A A A A
2. Cross-country A A
comparable
3. Availability across
countries
3. Availability over time B B,C B B C
Linking possibility A No B (only to A B
persons)
Source and ownership VOV/NAK WHS, Norwegian Living WES
National research EWCS Survey, Statistics
centre for the Norway
working environ-
ment
Accessible data Yes Yes Yes Yes A
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.3.6 Work Involves Static Loads
Static loads include standing still or walking much in the same position,
e.g. with arms raised. Static workloads on muscles have a well-
documented relation to muscle pain, back pain, neck pain, pain in the
arms and shoulders, etc.
e Does the work imply that the employees are exposed to a high
amount of repetition in motion?
Denmark
Description: Is not covered in VOV. Only NAK covers this subject directly:
Questions:
NAK2005-124; 1 and NAK2010-14; 1: Does your work entail you sit-
ting down?
NAK2005-124; 2 and NAK2010-14; 2: Does your work entail standing
in the same spot?
NAK2005-124; 10 and NAK2010-14; 8: Does your work entail squat-
ting or kneeling when you work?
Finland
WHS: QF3B, F1
EWCS: Q24C
Norway
Questions:
106 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
e Do you need to squat or kneel in the course of your work?
e Do you work standing up?
e Do you work with your hands raised to shoulder height or higher?
e Do you work in positions where you are leaning forward without
supporting yourself on your hands or arms?
e Do you work with your head bent forward?
Sweden
No further remarks.
 Work Involves Static Loads
DK FI NO SE Total
Overall grade c
1. Relevance A B A B B
2. Accuracy B A A A A
2. Cross-country compa- A A
rable
3. Availability across
countries
3. Availability over time B B,C B B Cc
Linking possibility A No Cc A E
Source and ownership NAK WHS, Norwegian Living WES
National research EWCS Conditions,
centre for the Statistics Norway
working environ-
ment
Accessible data Yes Yes Yes No B
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.3.7 Production or Use ofCertain Chemicals
If the work implies working with chemicals, this involves a risk concern-
ing the health of the employees. Chemicals can be both fatal and involve
permanent external as well as internal injuries. Chemicals can cause
short term illness but can also have long term effects for the health.
e Do you consider yourself above normal exposure to certain chemicals
(skin contact/breathing/eye contact)?
Denmark
Questions:
e Are any employees at your workplace exposed to chemicals, toxic
fumes, gasses, smoke or dust from materials or processes - or do any
have wet work?
VOV2006-78:
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 107
Does your skin have contact with cleanser and/or disinfectants?
NAK2005-112; 9 og NAK2010-10; 4:
Does your skin have contact with protective gloves made from plastic
or rubber?
NAK2005-112; 10:
Are you exposed to solvent fumes? (e.g. from paint, laquer, glue or
degreasing products)
NAK2005-113; 1:
Are you exposed to tobacco smoke from other people’s smoking?
NAK2005-113; 2:
How large a part of your total working hours where your hands are
wet or moist?
NAK2005-114; 1 and NAK2010-10; 5:
How large a part of your total working hours do you work with dusty
materials? (e.g. straw, milling)
NAK2005-114; 4:
In your workplace, do you work with materials marked as
dangerous? (an orange label with a black cross, flame, test tube or
skull)
NAK2005-115; 1:
Do you work with isocyanats at your workplace? (you will know from
your safety organization)
NAK2005-115; 2:
Do you work with epoxy in your workplace? (you will know from
your safety organization)
NAK2005-115; 4:
Finland
WHS: QS1
EWCS: Q23G
Norway
No information available
Sweden
Are you exposed to:
WES
a) Oil or cutting fluids (in contact with your skin)
b) Acid or basic (corroding) chemical compounds.
c) Cleaning agents and/or disinfectants (in contact with your skin).
d) Water which comes in direct contact with your skin several
times an hour (incl. washing your hands).
e) Human secretions like saliva, blood, urine, human feces or vomit.
108 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
Production or Use of Certain Chemicals
 
DK FI NO SE Total
Overall grade Cc
1. Relevance A B B B
2. Accuracy A A A B
2. Cross-country compara- B
ble
3. Availability across
countries
3. Availability over time B B,C B C
Linking possibility A No A B
Source and ownership NAK and VOV WHS, EWCS WES
National research
centre for the
working environ-
ment
Accessible data Yes Yes Yes B
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.3.8 Exposure to Smoke, Dust, Fumes (Skin
Contact/Breathing/Eye Contact)
Inhaling particles, dust, smoke etc. imply a variety of risks. This can have
consequences for the general well-being and work satisfaction but can
also imply the risk of the health of employees, both regarding short term
illness but also in the longer run concerning cancer or other airways
diseases.
e Does the work well-being includea riskof inhaling unhealthy
particles etc. through the human airways?
Denmark
They refer to the same question as the above:
Questions:
e Are any employees in the workplace exposed to chemicals, fumes,
gasses, smoke or dust from materials or processes - or does anyone
do wet work?
VOV2006-78:
e Does your skin have contact with cleaners and/or disinfectants?
NAK2005-112; 9 og NAK2010-10; 4:
e Does your skin have contact with protection gloves made my plastic
or rubber?
NAK2005-112; 10
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 109
e Are you being exposed to solvent fumes? (e.g. paint, laquer, glue,
degreasing products)
NAK2005-113; 1
e Are you exposed to tobacco smoke from other peoples smoking?
NAK2005-113; 2
e How largea part of your total working hours where your hands are
wet or moist?
NAK2005-114; 1 og NAK2010-10; 5
e NAK2005-114; 4: How large a partof your total working hours do
you work with dusty materials? (e.g. straw, milling)
e NAK2005-115; 1: In your workplace, do you work with materials
marked as dangerous? (an orange label with a black cross, flame, test
tube or skull)
e NAK2005-115; 2: Do you work with isocyanats at your workplace?
(you will know from your safety organization)
e NAK2005-115; 4: Do you work with epoxy in your workplace? (you
will know from your safety organization)
Finland
WHS: QH2
EWCS: Q23E
Norway
LKU
e Are you, in your day-to-day work, exposed to skin contact with
cleaning products, disinfectants, solvents or other degreasing agents?
Sweden
Questions:
e Are any of the following noticeably present that you can see or smell
in your workplace?
WES
a) Dust from metals, stone, quartz, cement, asbestos, mineral wool,
or the like.
b) Dust from textiles, wood, flour, animals or plants
c) Chemicals (gases, vapors, solvents, pesticides or plastic
chemicals)
d) Tobacco smoke from others’ smoking (passive smoking)
110 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
Exposure to Smoke Dust or Fumes
 
DK FI NO SE Total
Overall grade CE
1. Relevance A B B B Cc
2. Accuracy A A A A A
2. Cross-country compara-
ble
3. Availability across
countries
3. Availability over time B B,C A B C
Linking possibility A No No A Cc
Source and ownership NAK and VOV WHS, LKU WES
National research EWCS
centre for the
working environ-
ment
Accessible data Yes Yes Yes Yes A
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.3.9 WorkAccident Risks in Terms ofUsing Technical
Equipment and Machinery
Some jobs are performed in settings where there is a high risk of work
accidents as a consequence of using technical machinery. This can imply
risks of cuts and wounds and can in some incidents lead to amputation
of body parts.
e Does the work include working with technical equipment and
machinery which imply a general risk for work accidents?
Denmark
Questions:
e Do you work with machines in your workplace?
VOV2006-20:
e Do you work with hand tools in your workplace?
VOV2006-22:
e Do you work with mobile machines and other means of
transportation in your workplace?
VOV2006-27:
NAK does not have questions regarding the risk of accidents related to
the use of machines and equipment.
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 111
Finland
EWAS
Norway
Description: We have two potential sources for this information on gen-
eral risk for work accidents, neither of which, however, specifies that the
risk is caused by technical equipment and machinery.
The Labour Force Survey 2007 ad hoc module has the following
question (Q16d):
e Would you say that at your workplace you have particular exposure
to risk of accidents that can adversely affect your physical health?
(Yes/No)
The Norwegian level of living condition survey - working environment,
Statistics Norway, has the following question:
e How would you evaluate the risk of accident in your own work?
(scale with 3 categories)
Sweden
e Are you exposed to vibrations that make your whole body shake and
vibrate (for example, from a tractor, forklift, or other work machine).
WES
e Are you exposed to vibrations from hand-held machines or tools.
WES
Work Accident Risks
 
DK FI NO SE Total
Overall grade €
1. Relevance A A G B B
2. Accuracy B A B A B
2. Cross-country compa-
rable
3. Availability across
countries
3. Availability over time B A B B E
Linking possibility A No A B
Source and ownership NAK and VOV EWAS Norwegian Living WES
National research Conditions,
centre for the Statistics Norway
working environ- Labour Force
ment survey
Accessible data Yes Yes Yes Yes A
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
112 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
7.3.10 Work Includes Risk ofFallingfrom Heights
Construction workers are examples of personnel having a job, where
there is a large risk of falling from heights. Falling can be fatal or cause
disabilities.
e Does the work include working with technical equipment and
machinery which imply a general risk for work accidents?
Denmark
Questions:
e Is therea risk of falling from hights at your workplace?
VOV2006-25:
NAK does not have questions specifically regarding the risk of fall injuries.
Finland
EWAS
Norway
No data available
Sweden
No data available
Work Includes Risk of Falling from Heights
 
DK FI NO SE Total
Overall grade E
1. Relevance A A B
2. Accuracy B A E
2. Cross-country compara- E C
ble
3. Availability across coun- CE Cc
tries
3. Availability over time B A C
Linking possibility A No C
Source and ownership NAK and VOV EWAS
National research
centre for the
working environ-
ment
Accessible data Yes Yes No No B
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 113
7.3.11 Work Includes Traffic Risk
Moving in traffic most of the day increases the risk of being part of a
traffic accident, and many different jobs involve this risk, e.g. bus driver,
lorry driver, taxi driver, post man, police officer etc. Furthermore, jobs
performed in the traffic - e.g. construction workers, road construction
workers etc. - are also at risk.
e Does the work imply risk of traffic accidents?
Denmark
Questions:
e Doyou have employees working in traffic?
VOV2006-29:
NAK does not have questions specifically regarding the risk of traffic
accidents.
Finland
TVL
EWAS
Norway
Data not available (However, in the Labour Force Survey 2007 ad hoc
module, there was a question whether the last occupational accident
was a road traffic accident)
Sweden
Questions:
e Do you use acar at work? How many working hours are spent in the
car?
WES
114 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
Work Include Traffic Risks
 
DK Fi NO SE Total
Overall grade C
1. Relevance A A C B B
2. Accuracy Cc A C A Cc
2. Cross-country compa-
rable
3. Availability across
countries
3. Availability over time B A B B c
Linking possibility A E B A B
Source and ownership VOV TVL, EWAS Labour Force WES
National research Survey
centre for the
working environ-
ment
Accessible data Yes Yes Yes
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.4 Indicators Regarding Psychosocial Conditions
7.4.1 Freedom to Decide one’s Own Work Tasks
Denmark
Do you participate in planning of your own work? NAK2005-131 and
NAK2010-20
Do you have any influence on the amount of work you do? NAK2005-
135; 8
Do you have any influence in WHAT you do at work? NAK2005-135; 9
Finland
EWB
WHS: QJ12,13
You can take a break when you wish EWCS
Areyou able to choose or changeyour own tasks? EWCS
Norway:
“To what extent are youfree to decide your own tasks? Do you decide to
a very great extent, to a great extent, to some extent, not really or hardly
at all?”
“To what extent are you free to decide how to go about doing your
work?”
“To what extent can you influence decisions that are important to your
work?”
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 115
Sweden
“Are you involved in planning your work (for example, what is to be done,
how it is to be done, or who is to work with you)?” WES
"Is it possible for you to decide on your own when various tasks are to
be done (for example, by choosing to work a bitfaster some days and tak-
ing it easier other days)?” WES
“I have considerable freedom for action without going to my manager
to ask for permission” ECQ
"To what extent do you feel that you can make your own decisions con-
cerning your work?” ECQ
“Do you have the authority to deal with problems arising in your
work?” ECQ
“Do you feel there are any significant barriers to be able to work effi-
ciently, and ifso, are they... Control ofdetails, Matters are not attended to
in time, Rigid rules, Guidelines not clear, Decisions aren’t taken quickly
enough, Computer systems, Bureaucracy, Work routines, People only think
about themselves, Organizational structure, Top management control,
Workload, Lack of information lack ofproper competence, Employee turn-
over” ECQ
“I can decide myself how to conduct my work”, ECQ
Freedom to Decide Own Work Tasks
 
DK FI NO SE Total
Overall grade Cc
1. Relevance A A A B A
2. Accuracy A A A A A
2. Cross-country B
comparable
3. Availability A
across countries
3. Availability Cc C B B, WES C
over time A, ECQ
Linking possibil- A EWB CE WES: A €
ity WHS ECQ: C
EWCS: C
Source and NAK, National Norwegian level of WES: The Swedish
ownership Research centre living condition Work Environment
for the Working survey — working Survey. SCB and
Environment environment, SSB Swedish Work
Environment
Authority
ECQ
Accessible data? Yes Yes Yes
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
116 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
Norway
Can the data be linked to persons or companies e.g. by vat number? With-
in the file the exposure and outcome data are linked (cross-sectional da-
ta), we also have panel data where the same person is followed over time
(three years intervals). Not possible to link to companies.
7.4.2 Frames Allowing Deliverance ofQuality Desired by
one Self
Denmark
Are you able to perform your work at a quality level that you are com-
pletely satisfied with? NAK2005-141; 4 og NAK2010-27; 4
Finland
No data
Norway
No data
Sweden
Nothing reported
Frames
 
DK FI NO SE Total
Overall grade Cc
1. Relevance A E
2. Accuracy A Cc
2. Cross-country comparable Cc
3. Availability across countries Cc
3. Availability over time A Cc
Linking possibility A Cc
Source and ownership NAK, National Research centre for
the Working Environment
Accessible data? Yes
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.4.3 Freedom to Organise the Day, Including Brakes
Denmark
Not included
Finland
You can take a break whenyou wish EWCS
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 117
Norway
“Are you free to choose when to take a break from your work: e.g. to
stretch your legs or take a breather in some other way?”
Sweden
“Howdo you experienceyour work? Too little influence” WES
“How do youexperienceyour work? Constrained and unfree’, WES
“In the mains can you take short breaks at any time in order to talk?”
WES
“Does your work occasionally require you to perform nothing but repet-
itive tasks several times per hour?” WES
"Is there any part ofyour work day when you do nothing but wait and
remain prepared in case something might happen?” WES
Freedom at Work
 
DK FI NO SE Total
Overall grade c
1. Relevance C A B A B
2. Accuracy Cc A A A B
2. Cross-country compa- A
rable
3. Availability across A
countries
3. Availability over time C C B B C
Linking possibility C C Cc A C
Source and ownership Norwegian level of WES: The Swedish
living condition Work Environment
survey — working Survey. SCB and
environment, SSB Swedish Work
Environment
Authority
Accessible data? No Yes Yes
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.44 Work at High Speed
Denmark
Is it necessary to work very quickly? NAK2005-135; 1 og NAK2010-23; 5
Finland
And doesyourjob involve working at a very high speed? EWCS
WHS: QJ2
WCB
118 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
Norway
“How often doyou have to work quickly?”
“How well does the following description fit your current job? ...
There is normally not time to perform tasks properly“
Sweden
“Is it possifobrlyoeu to set your own work tempo?” WES
Work at High Speed
 
DK FI NO SE Total
Overall grade c
1. Relevance A B A B B
2. Accuracy A A A A A
2. Cross-country B
comparable
3. Availability A
across countries
3. Availability over Cc Cc B B Cc
time
Linkable A C c A Cc
Source and owner- NAK, National Norwegian level of WES: The Swedish
ship Research centre for living condition Work Environment
the Working survey — working Survey. SCB and
Environment environment, SSB Swedish Work
Environment
Authority
Accessible data? Yes Yes Yes
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.4.5 Large Work Loads
Denmark
Is your work unevenly distributed so that it can pile up? NAK2005-135; 2
and NAK2010-23; 1
How often does it occur that you do not accomplish all your work
tasks? NAK2005-135; 3 og NAK2010-23; 2
Is it necessary to work late? NAK2005-135; 5 og NAK2010-23; 3:
Finland
No data
Norway
“How often do you have too much to do?”
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 119
“Do you sometimes have so much to do that you have to miss lunch,
work longer than your normal working hours or take work home with
you?"
Sweden
"Is your work sometimes so stressful thatyou do not have time to talk or
even think of anything other than work?” WES
“Do you sometimes have so much work to do that you have to skip
lunch, work late, or take work home with you?" WES
"How do you experience your work? Far too much to do” WES
 Large Work Loads
DK FI NO SE Total
Overall grade B
1. Relevance A A A A
2. Accuracy A A A A
2. Cross-country B
comparable
3. Availability B
across countries
3. Availability over A B B B
time
Linkable A C A B
Source and owner- NAK, National Norwegian level of WES: The Swedish
ship Research centre for living condition Work Environment
the Working survey — working Survey. SCB and
Environment environment, SSB Swedish Work
Environment
Authority
Accessible data? Yes - Yes Yes
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.4.6 High Cognitive Demands
Denmark
How often do you have to worry about other people’s problems in your
work? NAK2010-23; 6:
Does your workput you in emotionally draining situations? NAK2005-
135; 4
Isyour work emotionally draining? NAK2005-136; 2 og NAK2010-25; 1:
Are you affected emotionally by your work? NAK2005-136;5 and
NAK2010-25; 3
To what degree do you have to survey a large amountof information in
order to carry outyour work? NAK2005-136; 1
120 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
Finland
WHS: QJ4
WCB
Norway
"How often doesyourjob requireyou to learn new skills?”
Sweden
Doesyour work requireyour undivided attention and concentration? WES
How doyou experienceyour work? Tasks too difficult? WES
How doyou experienceyour work? Mentally stressful work? WES
Do you spend part ofyour workday comprehending or solving complex
problems? WES
Does your job allow you opportunities to learn something new and de-
velop in your occupation? WES
Does your work require any more classroom education or courses be-
yond (lower-secondary) compulsory or elementary school? WES
Besides education or courses, is there any on-the-job training or intro-
ductory training necessary to performyourjob? WES
T have the skills/qualifications I need to carry out my assignments at work
Ifeel that I develop and expand my capabilities at work ECQ
New ideas are encouraged and given strong support ECQ
We often try out new methods and waysof thinking ECQ
I constantly benefitfrom the knowledge and experience ofothers ECQ
We are encouraged to share our knowledge and experiences ECQ
High Cognitive Demands
 
DK Fl NO SE Total
Overall grade B
1. Relevance A B B A B
2. Accuracy A A A A A
2. Cross-country B
comparable
3. Availability A
across countries
3. Availability c WHS: A B B (WES) B
over time WCB: B A (ECQ)
Linkable A C c WES: A Cc
ECQ: €
Source and NAK, National Norwegian level WES: The Swedish Work
ownership Research of living condi- Environment Survey. SCB
centre for the tion survey — and Swedish Work
Working working envi- Environment Authority
Environment ronment, SSB ECQ
Accessible data? Yes Yes Yes
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 121
7.4.7 Clarity ofExpectations in Work
Denmark
I clearly know what my areas ofresponsibility are: NAK2005-143; 1
Finland
WHS: QJ24B
Do you know what is expected ofyou at work EWCS Q51K
Norway
e How often is it unclear what is expected ofyou in your job?
e Doyou sometimes have to perform tasks thatyou do notfeel
adequately trained to do?
Sweden
Ifyour tasksfeel difficult, doyou have access to advice or help? WES
To what extent doyou agree with thefollowing statements concerningyou
and your situation? ECQ
e lam familiar with the overall companygoals
e I have clearly defined goals
e My individual goals arefollowed up
e In my work group our goals are regularlyfollowed up
I understand what our values mean in my everday work ECQ
I am awareof what is important in order to make the company successful
ECQ
In my work group we are organized in such a way that everyone knows
who should be doing what ECQ
It is important for a manager to be able to give precise answers to the
majority of questions that his/her employees may raise about their work
ECQ
122 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
 Clarity of Excpectations of Work
DK Fl NO SE Total
Overall grade B
1. Relevance A B A A A
2. Accuracy A A A A A
2. Cross-country B
comparable
3. Availability across A
countries
3. Availability over time C WHS: B A WES: B B
EWCS: C ECQ:A
Linkable A c C WES: A C
ECQ: C
Source and ownership NAK, National LKU WES: The Swedish
Research centre for Work Environment
the Working Survey. SCB and
Environment Swedish Work
Environment
Authority
ECQ
Accessible data? Yes ? Yes
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.4.8  Contradicting Demands
Denmark
Conflicting demands are placed on me in my work: NAK2005-143; 2
Norway
“How often do you receive contradictory requestsfrom two or more differ-
ent people?”
“How often are you given tasks without being given sufficient tools and
resources to complete them? How often do you have to do things thatyou
think should be done in a different way?”
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 123
 Contradicting Demands
DK FI NO SE Total
Overall grade C
1. Relevance A B B
2. Accuracy A A B
2. Cross-country compa- B
rable
3. Availability across C
countries
3. Availability over time E B C
Linkable A C C
Source and ownership NAK, National Norwegian level of
Research centre for living condition
the Working sur—wvorekiyng
Environment environment, SSB
Accessible data? Yes Yes
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.4.9 Trust and Respect From Leadership
Denmark
Ensure that the individual employee has good development opportunities?
NAK2005-137; 1 og NAK2010-26; 1
Is your work recognized and valued by the management? NAK2005-
141; 1 og NAK 2010-27; 1
The management is confident that we do our work well NAK2010-28; 2
Our immediate manager takes our needs and views into consideration
when making decisions. NAK2010-28; 5
Our immediate manager treats us with resepect and dignity. NAK2010-
28; 6
Finland
WHS: QJ35
In general, your immediate manager/supervisor respects you as a per-
son EWCS: Q58B
Norway
“How well does thefollowing description fityour immediate superior?
Your immediate superior treats employees with trust and respect?”
“Do you get feedback from your superiors on how you have performed
your work?”
“Does your immediate superior treat employees fairly and impartially?”
“Does your immediate superior value your achievements at work?”
Sweden:
124 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
Does your superior (boss) ever express appreciation for your work?
WES
Ifyou think you have too much to do, is it possiblefor you to get in con-
tact with your supervisorfor setting ofpriorities? WES
How much confidence do you have in the managers at various levels
within the company? ECQ
My manager...
a) creates efficiency
b) follows competitor’s actions and the market situation on a regular
basis
c) helps me to understand our unit’s role in achieving company targets
d) finds creative and practical solutions to problems
Achievement and initiative
e) is decisive
f) ensures that decisions taken are implemented
g) ensures that decisions and schedules arefollowed up
h) initiates activities to achieve better results
i) is consistent in demanding results and achieving goals
Customer responsive
J). make the most ofcustomer/market opportunities
k) encourages us to practice service leadership
1) develops and supports long-term relationships with customers
m) makes sure that customer satisfaction is thefocus ofthe team’s efforts
People development
n) supports me ifI take on added responsibility
0) gives me constructivefeedback on my work performance
p) ensures that all employees are involved in planning, implementation
andfollow-up ofactivities
q) enables and supports my development
r) creates an open and trusting atmosphere in the unit
Personnel standards
s) is accessible/has timefor me
t) isa good listener
u) .communicaties in a clear and comprehensive way
v) is open for constructivefeedback
w) keeps his/her promises
x) creates positive energy in employees around him/her ECQ
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 125
When I do a good job my contribution is recognized ECQ
Trust and Respect from Leadership
 
DK FI NO SE Total
Overall grade c
1. Relevance A B A A A
2. Accuracy A A A A A
2. Cross-country B
comparable
3. Availability across A
countries
3. Availability over time Cc WHS: B B WES: B Cc
EWCS: C ECQ: A
Linkable A C Cc A Cc
Source and ownership Norwegian level of WES: The Swedish
living condition Work Environment
survey — working Survey. SCB and
environment, SSB Swedish Work
Environment
Authority
ECQ
Accessible data? Yes
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.4.10 Trust and Respectfrom Colleagues
Sweden
Howdo you experienceyour work? Too little support and help from fellow
workers and superiors? WES
How doyou experienceyour work? Too isolatedfrom others? WES
In my daily work there is a spirit and enthusiasm that is inspiring ECQ
126 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
Trust and Respect from Colleagues
 
DK FI NO SE Total
Overall grade c
1. Relevance A C
2. Accuracy A C
2. Cross-country comparable C
3. Availability across countries C
3. Availability over time WES: B Ec
ECQ: A
Linkable? Yes WES
No ECQ
Source and ownership WES: The Swedish
Work Environment
Survey. SCB and
Swedish Work
Environment
Authority
ECQ
Accessible data? Yes
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.4.11 Predictability of Work
Denmark
To what extent do you get the information, you need to do your job well?
NAK2005-136; 11 and NAK2010-25; 7
[manager] is good at planning the work? NAK2005-137; 3
Finland
No data
Norway
“Does your employer give you plenty of notice of important decisions,
changes and future plans?”
Sweden
No data
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 127
 Predictability of Work
DK FI NO SE Total
Overall grade Cc
1. Relevance A A B
2. Accuracy A A B
2. Cross-country comparable B
3. Availability across countries C
3. Availability over time Cc B c
Linkable A C C
Source and ownership Norwegian level of
living condition
survey — working
environment, SSB
Accessible data? Yes Yes
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.4.12 Motivation
Sweden
How much of the time do you feel satisfied with your job? ECQ (is this
right?)
Motivation
 
DK FI NO SE Total
Overall grade C
1. Relevance A C
2. Accuracy A C
2. Cross-country comparable C
3. Availability across countries C
3. Availability over time B Cc
Linkable Yes
Source and ownership WES: The Swedish
Work Environment
Survey. SCB and
Swedish Work
Environment
Authority
Accessible data? Yes
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
128 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
7.4.13 Work-Reward Balance
Denmark
No direct measures
Finland
WHS: QJ21B
Norway
"To what extent do you agree or disagree with the following statement?
My salary is appropriate to my efforts and performance at work”
"To what extent do you agree or disagree with the following statement?
In relation to my efforts and performance, I get the respect and recogni-
tion that I deserve at work.”
Sweden
Can you receive support and encouragement from your superiors when
your work becomes troublesome? WES
How doyou experienceyour work? Extremely meaningless work WES
Can you receive support and encouragemfernomt your fellow workers
when your work becomes troublesome? WES
Do other persons express appreciation foryour work (e.g. fellow work-
ers, patients, customers, clients, passengers, students)? WES
How do you experience your work? Very unhappy with my working
hours WES
Overall I feel good ECQ
I think my workload is reasonable, i.e. not excessive ECQ
My situation at work gives me the possibility to have balance between
work and spare time ECQ
Expectations placed on me are compatible with my competence ECQ
On the whole I am happy with my salary discussion ECQ
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 129
Work-Reward Balance
 
DK Fi NO SE Total
Overall grade B
1. Relevance B A A B
2, Accuracy A A A A
2. Cross-country comparable B
3. Availability across countries B
3. Availability over time B B B: WES B
A: ECQ
Linkable C C WES: A Cc
ECQ: €
Source and ownership Norwegian level of living condition WES
survey — working environment, SSB ECQ.
Accessible data? Yes Yes
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.5 Indicators Regarding Well-Being
Norway
General comment
There is little or no available data regarding well-being at company
level. That implies that all questions reported under this section are
based on survey data. The data can, however, be aggregated for occupa-
tional groups, industries or sectors.
7.5.1 —Yearly Amount OfWork Related Diagnoses
e How many work related diagnoses per year in the company?
Denmark
Description: Often, it is not possible to decide, whether diagnoses are work-
related or not. The subject is not covered by VOV. NAK has questions
broadly aimed at diagnosed illnesses.
Haveyou ever been told by a medical doctor thatyou sufferedfrom one
of the following conditions (15 response categories in NAK2005 and 9
response categories in NAK2010). NAK2005-58 og NAK2010-48
Finland
EODS
SF
130 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
Norway
Description: Source 1
A national registry based on medical doctors reporting to The Labour
Inspectorate, age, sex, diagnosis and occupation is available in the regis-
try, industrial branch not available, and company not available
Description: Source 2
EUROSTAT survey on accident and disesases (as a part if the labour
force survey )- Statistics Norway, last undertaken in 2007, questions
about occupational diseases:Q7 (Apart from the accident you have told
me about), within the last 12 months have you suffered from any illness,
disability or other physical or mental problem?
e Q7a Are any of these an illness that you consider caused or been
made worse by your job or by work you have done in the past?
e Q8 How many illnesses have you had (in the last 12 months) that
have been caused or made worse by your work?
e Q9 In the following questions (Q10-Q13) please consider the most
serious one the illnesses you suffered during the last 12 months and
which were caused of made worse by your work.
Sweden
OAC Diagnoses of work related diseases
Work-Related Diagnoses
 
DK Fl NO SE Total
Overall grade B
1. Relevance A B 1: C (5 pct. reporting) A B
2:A
2. Accuracy A A 1:A A A
2:A
2. Cross-country comparable B
3. Availability across coun- A
tries
3. Availability over time C A LA A B
2:C
Linking possibility A C LC A C
2:C
Source and ownership NAK, NFA EODS 1: Labour Inspectorate OAC
SF 2: The Labour force
survey 2007 ad hoc
module, Statistics
Norway, EUROSTAT
Accessible data? 1: Yes
2: Yes
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 131
7.5.2 Yearly Amount ofReporting Sick or Ill
e How many workers report sick or ill for how many days per year
Denmark
Description: Not covered by VOV.
How many days did you report sick last year? NAK2005-146 og
NAK2010-33
Finland
WCB
LFS
Norway
The Norwegian Labour and Welfare Administration: Registry data on
sick leave, the sick leave percentage (lost days of possible working days
yearly). Data available at present are aggregated by sex, age, 47 occupa-
tional groups, industrial branch and region.
Sweden
OAC Number of reported cases
OAC Number of reported work accidents which has caused sick-leave
(> 14 days or < 15days)
OAC Number of reported work ilnesses which has caused sick-leave
(> 14 days or < 15days)
LISA total amount of sick-leave for males and females and different
ages
 Reporting Sick and III
DK Fl NO SE Total
Overall grade A
1. Relevance A B A A B
2. Accuracy A A A A A
2. Cross-country compara- A
ble
3. Availability across A
countries
3. Availability over time Cc A A A B
Linking possibility A C (?) A B
Source and ownership NAK, NFA WCB The Norwegian Labour OAC
LFS and Welfare Admin- LISA
istration
Accessible data? Yes
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
132 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
7.5.3. Short Term Sickness
OAC Number of reported work accidents which has caused sick-leave (>
14 days or < 15days)
OAC Number of reported work ilnesses which has caused sick-leave
(> 14 days or < 15days)
Short term sickness
DK FI NO SE Total
 
Overall grade G
1. Relevance A Cc
2. Accuracy A C
2. Cross-country comparable G
3. Availability across countries C
3. Availability over time A Cc
Linking possibility A Cc
Source and ownership OAC
Accessible data?
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.5.4 Long Term Sickness
e What is the number of employees away because of long term
illnesses?
e How long are average periods of sicknesses
Denmark
Description: Information obtainable from the Danish DREAM-data, a
longitudinal data set containing information about all and every instance
of pay-out from public benefit schemes. On a weekly basis.
Finland
SSI
Norway
The Norwegian Labour and Welfare Administration: Registry data sick
leave 16 d+, number of sick-leave cases (not number of workers), occu-
pation, industrial branch, region, age, groups, sex, selected diagnosis.
Sweden
OAC Number of reported work accidents which has caused sick-leave (>
14 days or < 15days)
OAC Number of reported work ilnesses which has caused sick-leave
(> 14 days or < 15days)
LISA sick-leave > 60 days
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 133
 Long Term Sickness
DK FI NO SE Total
Overall grade B
1. Relevance A A A A A
2. Accuracy A A A A A
2. Cross-country compa- A
rable
3. Availability across A
countries
3. Availability over time C A B/C A B
Linking possibility A C (?) A B
Source and ownership DREAM, AMS SSI The Norwegian Labour OAC
and Welfare Administra- LISA
tion:
Accessible data? Yes
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.5.5 Mortality Rates
e What is the mortality rate among workers in a company
Denmark
Description: Information about mortality is obtainable from the “Cause
of Death Register”.
Finland
SF
Norway
No data
Sweden
No data
 Mortality Rates
DK FI NO SE Total
Overall grade C
1. Relevance A A - B
2. Accuracy A A - B
2. Cross-country comparable A
3. Availability across countries C
3. Availability over time A A - B
Linking possibility A € - €
Source and ownership Dødsårsags-registret (?) SF -
Accessible data? = ‘
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
134 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
7.9.6 Average RetirementAge
e The average age of retirement
Denmark
Description: Information about retirement age obtainable from the Dan-
ish DREAM-data, a longitudinal data set containing information about all
and every instance of pay-out from public benefit schemes. On a weekly
basis.
Finland
SF
Norway
No data
Sweden
No data
Retirement age
DK FI NO SE Total
 
Overall grade Cc
1. Relevance A A B
2. Accuracy A A B
2. Cross-country comparable B
3. Availability across countries E
3. Availability over time A A A
Linking possibility A E C
Source and ownership DREAM, AMS SF
Accessible data?
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.5.7 Number ofRecipients ofBenefitsfor Those Unfit to
Work
Denmark
Description: Information obtainable from the Danish DREAM-data, a
longitudinal data set containing information about all and every instance
of pay-out from public benefit schemes. On a weekly basis.
Finland
SSI
Norway
The Norwegian Labour and Welfare Administration: Registry data num-
ber of workers with maximum sick leave benefits (12 months) and
number of recipients of benefits for those unfit to work. Data on maxi-
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 135
mum sick leave benefits available at present are aggregated by sex, age,
47 occupational groups, industrial branch, and region. For a number of
recipients of benefits for those unfit to work occupational group is not
available.
Sweden
No data
Benefits for Those Unfit to Work
 
DK FI NO SE Total
Overall grade C
1. Relevance A A A * A
2. Accuracy A A A = A
2. Cross-country comparable
3. Availability across countries B
3. Availability over time A A A - A
Linking possibility A E € - &
Source and ownership DREAM, SSI The Norwegian Labour and -
AMS Welfare Administration
Accessible data? Yes =
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.5.8 Work Related Injuries
Denmark
Description: Not covered in VOV.
NAK2005-116: How many work related accidents have you experi-
enced within the last 12 months, which led to absence from work for
longer than the day of the accident?
NAK2010-11: Have you, within the last 12 months, experienced a
work-related accident, which led to your absence from work for longer
than the day of the accident?
NAK2005-117: How many days were you absent as a consequence of
the accident, except for the day of the accident?
NAK-2005-118: What happened? (9 response categories)
NAK2005-119 og NAK2010-11b: Were you given hospital treatment
after the accident?
NAK2005-120: Did the accident occur during your usual work?
NAK2005-121: What is the risk that you, within the next 12 months, will
be hurt at work in a way causing you to stay home for at least one day?
136 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
Finland
SF
TVL
Norway
The best available source is EUROSTAT survey on accident and disesases
(as a part of the labour force survey )- Statistics Norway, last undertak-
en in 2007, questions about occupational diseases: [?]
Sweden
OAC Number of reported cases split up on different categories (causes)
as well as occupations
Work Related Injuries
 
DK FI NO SE Total
Overall grade Et
1. Relevance A A A - A
2. Accuracy A A A - A
2. Cross-country comparable B
3. Availability across countries B
3. Availability over time C A C - Cc
Linking possibility A C - - iq
Source and ownership NAK, NFA SF The Labour force
TVL survey 2007 ad
hoc module,
Statistics Norway,
EUROSTAT
Accessible data? Yes
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.5.9 Self-Reported Work-Related Health Problems
Denmark
Description: Most people are incapable of judging themselves, whether
their health problems are work-related or not. In NAK, therefore, we ask
in general to the occurrence of a range of health problems, which are
then related statistically to the reporting of different work environment
problems.
Self-reported health in general: NAK-2005-18 og NAK2010-52
Unspecified “subjective health complaints” NAK-2005-57;1-26 and
Nak2010-53; 1-19
Physical pain and conditions: NAK2005-42-43-44-45-46-47-48-49-
50-51 and NAK2010-40-41-42-43-44-45-46-47
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 137
Psychological well-being, stress, and depression NAK2005-19 and 23
and NAK2010-49-50-51
Finland
EWCS: Q69A-N
Norway
The living condition survey (population sample) has several questions
regarding self-reported work-related health problems. The data can be
aggregated for occupational groups, industries or sectors.Alist:
e Have you, over the past month, been Severly afflicted from,Somewhat
afflicted from, A little afflicted from or not afflicted at all from. If the
subject is afflicted they are asked is this wholly or partly due to your
current job ...
e pain in the small or lower part of the back?
e pains in your neck and/or shoulders?
e pains in your elbows, lower arms or hands?
e pains in your hips, legs, knees or feet?
e headaches or migraines?eczema, itchy skin or rash?
e eye irritations such as itchy, tender, red or runny eyes?
e hearing problems, which have made it difficult for you to follow
conversations when several people are talking, or have you
experienced tinnitus?
e nervousness, anxiety or restlessness?
e dejection or depression?
e sleep disruptions, such as problems falling asleep, waking up too
early or getting too little sleep?
e stomach pain and/or diarrhoea?respiratory problems, such as
coughing, mucus, shortness of breath or wheezing?
Heart problems:
e Do you get chest pains or discomfort when walking up hills, climbing
steps or walking fast on the flat?
e Ifyou do experience pain when walking, do you normally stop, slow
down or continue at the same speed?
e Ifyou stop or slow down, does the pain go away in less than 10
minutes or more than 10 minutes?
e Are you just as likely to experience that kind of pain when resting?
Within the file the exposure and outcome data are linked (cross-sectional
data), we also have panel data where the same person is followed over time
(three years intervals). Not possible to link to companies.
138 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
Sweden
WES How often during the past 12 months have you attended work alt-
hough you, considering your state of health, should have reported sick?
WES After work, do you experience pain in any ofthe following places...
..upper parts of your back or neck?
..lower parts of your back?
..Shoulders or arms?
..wrists or hands?
..hips, legs, knees, or feet?
WES Does it happen that you are physically exhausted when you get
home from work?
WES Does it happen that you cannot dismiss your job from your
thoughts when you are off work?
WES Have you during the last three months...
..had heartburn, acid burping, burn in the pit of your stomach, or up-
set stomach?
..been tired and listless?
..had headaches?
..had itching or other irritation in your eyes?
..had a hard time sleeping because thoughts about your work keep
you awake?
WES Does it happen that you feel ill at ease going to your job?
WES Does it happen that you feel uneasy and despondent as a result
of difficulties you are facing at work?
WES Does it happen that after the end of your work day you feel that
your work contributions have been insufficient?
WES Does it happen that you after work are too tired or don’t have
enough time for your family, friends or leisure activities?
ECQ: Overall I feel good
RESEARCH Subjective appreciation of stress correlates with produc-
tivity (found in many studies e.g., Aldana, 2001)
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 139
Self-Reported Work-Related Health Problems
 
DK Fl NO SE Total
Overall grade C
1. Relevance A B A A A
2. Accuracy A A A B A
2. Cross-country comparable A
3. Availability across countries A
3. Availability over time c E B B C
Linking possibility A CE Cc A Cc
ECQ: C
Source and ownership NAK EWCS Norwegian living condition WES
survey , Statistics Norway ECQ
Accessible data? Yes
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.5.10 Number of Work Related Deaths
e The number of deaths related to work
Denmark
Description: No reliable information.
Finland
SF
TVL
Norway
Data from the various Governmental Inspectorates, and based on this
provided yearly national data, we do not have access to demographic
variables, occupation, industrial branch etc.
Sweden
Not reported
140 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
Work-Related Deaths
 
DK FI NO SE Total
Overall grade C
1. Relevance = A B A B
2. Accuracy = A = A B
2. Cross-country comparable E
3. Availability across countries B
3. Availability over time - A - A A
Linking possibility - Cc = A C
Source and ownership - SF Faktabok 2011, Med
TVL NOA, STAMI
(available 2011)
Accessible data? Yes
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.5.11 Stress
e Number of employees with stress
Denmark
Description: Not covered in VOV.
It is difficult to ask directly to stress in a questionnaire, as the subject
is very vaguely defined and has many meanings. Instead, we prefer ask-
ing, in the NAK-survey, about symptoms, which can be stress related, as
for instance low quality of sleep, low vitality, etc.
Psychological well-being, stress, and depression NAK2005-19 and 23
and NAK2010-49-50-51
Finland
WHS: QJ1
EWCS: Q51N
Norway
Questions in the living condition survey (population sample) which indi-
rectly can be used as surrogate for work related stress. Same dataset as
for work related health problems:
e Have you, over the past month, been Severly afflicted from,
Somewhat afflicted from, A little afflicted from or not afflicted at all
from. If the subject is afflicted they are asked is this wholly or partly
due to your current job ...
e nervousness, anxiety or restlessness? -
e dejection or depression?
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 141
e sleep disruptions, such as problems falling asleep, waking up too
early or getting too little sleep?
e stomach pain and/or diarrhoea? respiratory problems, such as
coughing, mucus, shortness of breath or wheezing?
Heart problems:
e Do you get chest pains or discomfort when walking up hills, climbing
steps or walking fast on the flat?
e Ifyou do experience pain when walking, do you normally stop, slow
down or continue at the same speed?
e Ifyou stop or slow down, does the pain go away in less than 10
minutes or more than 10 minutes?
Are you just as likely to experience that kind of pain when resting?
Sweden
 Stress
DK FI NO SE Total
Overall grade C
1. Relevance B B B A B
2. Accuracy B A A A A
2. Cross-country comparable B
3. Availability across countries A
3. Availability over time G WHS: B B A C
EWCS: C
Linking possibility A c Gc A C
Source and ownership NAK, NFA — WHS Norwegian living MED
EWCS condition survey,
Statistics Norway
Accessible data? Yes
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
7.5.12 Depression
e Number of employees with a depression
Denmark
Description: Not covered by VOV.
NAK2005-19; 1-12. This tool for investigating on mental health (de-
pression) was in NAK2010-50; 1-12 replaced by a stronger tool, which is
a significant part of the recognised Major Depression Inventory (MDI)
142 Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries
Finland
WHS: QT5A-B
ECWS: Q69K
Norway
e Have you, over the past month, been Severly afflicted from,
Somewhat afflicted from, A little afflicted from or not afflicted at all
from. If the subject is afflicted they are asked is this wholly or partly
due to your current job been ina state of low mood or depressed?
Sweden
No description
Depression
 
DK FI NO SE Total
Overall grade c
1. Relevance A B A A A
2. Accuracy A A A A A
2. Cross-country comparable Cc
3. Availability across countries A
3. Availability over time Cc WHS: B B A C
ECWS: C
Linking possibility A Cc A CE C
Source and ownership NAK, WHS Norwegian living MED
NFA ECWS condition survey,
Statistics Norway
Accessible data? Yes
 
Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011.
Measuring Work Well-Being and Productivity in the Nordic Countries 143